ROUND THE V ORLD 
: TRAVE LLER 





D.E.LORENZ 





Lt oYue 


BENARES SS 


COLOMBGC: Jee 
: CEYTON — 











THE ’ROUND THE WORLD TRAVELLER 





“Better than a Shelf of Guide-Books” 


Complete 


Tourists’ Handbooks 
BY D. E. LORENZ, Pu.D. 
Director of World Cruises 





The ’Round the World Traveller 


with 464 pages, 8 maps and 60 original 
illustrations—$5.00 
Third, 1925, Edition 


A new volume by the famous world- 
traveller supplies a long felt need. It takes 
the place of an armful of guide-books for the 
various countries visited—giving the neces- 
sary information in complete, attractive and 
easily remembered form. Similar in scope 
and treatment to “The New Mediterranean 
Traveller,” it will doubtless soon take its 
place as a standard handbook for ’Round 
the World tourists. 


The New Mediterranean Traveller 


357 pages, with maps, plans, pictures 
Tenth, 1925, Edition—$4.00 


The New Mediterranean Traveller will 
be found to include the latest and fullest 
development in the Lands visited by tourists 
in the Near East. It has long been recog- 
nized as the most satisfactory volume 
covering the necessary facts and details 
of Mediterranean travel, and its original 
value has been greatly increased in this 
present rewritten and revised form. 

Boston Transcript says: “Even the travel- 
ler on his first trip abroad cannot fail to 
know what is best for him to see and 
to know when he finds it.” 











A KYOTO GARDEN IN MID-WINTER 


The 
>Round the World Traveller 


A Complete Summary of Practical 
Information 


By 
D. E. LORENZ, Ph.D. 


Author of “The New Mediterranean Traveller” 
Director of World Wide Cruises 


THIRD, 1925, EDITION, REVISED 


FULLY ILLUSTRATED 
WITH PHOTOGRAPHS AND MAPS 





New York CHICAGO 


Preming  H. Revell Company 


LONDON AND EDINBURGH 


Copyright, 1924, 1925, by 
FLEMING H. REVELL COMPANY 


New York: 158 Fifth Avenue 
Chicago: 17 North Wabash Ave. 
London: 21 Paternoster Square 
Edinburgh: 75 Princes Street 


INTRODUCTION 


HIS new volume, the outcome of three "Round the 

World trips by the author, is especially prepared for 

people who visit only the more important centres 
of the Far East, such as are usually included in the itinerary 
of travellers, thus making it possible, within the scope of 
464 pages, to give a thorough treatment of these essential 
places. This obviates the necessity of carrying a dozen dif- 
ferent guide books for the various countries visited, which 
give most of their space to the minute description of places 
rarely visited. 

The author has reason to feel, after going over the litera- 
ture on this subject, that no other book gives so complete 
a survey of the essential facts and details of the countries 
and places usually visited. It is similar in scope to the 
author’s ““New Mediterranean Traveller,’’ which has become 
the standard manual of travel for Mediterranean lands. 

The information in this volume is put in a systematic and 
serviceable form, with prominent headings and sub-headings, 
so as to give added convenience while sightseeing. A selected 
bibliography, and a condensed outline of facts and figures, 
serve as a valuable supplement to each country visited. 
There is also a brief preliminary survey of history, govern- 
ment, international relations, religions, art and national cus- 
toms. ‘The illuminating reviews of the Filipino Independ- 
ence movement, the so-called “Japanese Menace,” the alarm- 
ing situation in China, Gondhiism, and similar questions, 
are believed to be a valuable feature. 

The book includes a general survey of Cuba, specialising 
Havana; the Isthmus of Panama, featuring Colon and Pan- 
ama City, and especially the Panama Canal; Hawaii, stress- 
ing Hilo, the Kilauea volcano, and Honolulu and its environ- 
ment; Japan, featuring Tokyo, Kamakura, Nikko, Kyoto, 

5 


6 INTRODUCTIGaY 
Nara, Osaka, Kobe, the Inland Sea, Nagasaki, and some 


conspicuous places in an overland trip across Japan; Korea, 
with a special treatment of Seoul; China, giving prominence 
to Shanghai, Tientsin, Peking, Hong Kong, Canton and 
Macao; the Philippine Islands, putting emphasis upon Ma- 
nila and its surroundings; Java, with descriptions of Batavia, 
Buitenzorg, Sourabaya and Borobudur; the Malay Penin- 
sula, featuring Singapore; Burma, giving special prominence 
to Rangoon; India, describing Calcutta, Darjeeling, Benares, 
Lucknow, Cawnpore, Agra and the Taj Mahal, Delhi, 
Jaipur, Amber, Bombay, Madras, Trichinopoli and Ma- 
dura; Ceylon, placing stress upon Colombo and Kandy; the 
Suez Canal, including Suez and Port Said; and Egypt, em- 
phasising Cairo, Luxor, Karnak, and the tomb of Tutank- 
hamen at Thebes. | 

The materials have been gathered from many sources, 
special credit being due to such notable books as Powell’s 
“Asia at the Cross-Roads,”’ Bland’s “China, Korea and 
Japan,” Greenbie’s “The Pacific Triangle” and others. The 
author is also indebted to Dr. Burton M. VanDervoort for 
the use of his photographs. Several of the illustrations ap- 
peared originally in “Twice Around the World,” by Edgar 
A. Forbes. 

New York City. D.E.L. 


PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION 


Events in the Far East have moved in the last eighteen 
months at such a bewildering pace, especially in Japan, 
China and India, that a revised edition, bringing history, 
political situations, statistics and bibliography up to date, 
has seemed imperative. Scores of pages have been entirely 
rewritten and evidences of revision will be seen throughout. 
The writer appreciates the cordial reception given to the first 
two editions. 


JULY I, 1925. Es. 


CHAPTER 


I. 


ae 


Iil. 


IV. 


CONTENTS 


WUBA Ga. Se ae 13 
eo Tan Ase ant ecru ar 5. Per eae, Fes £2) 
I Ae en re hs re SOS 4 20 
BEPERACTICAL HINTS . =. 31 
4. SUPPLEMENTARY FAcTS AND Wicutss 35 
Reet BCeN tT DIBLIOGRAPHY . . .. . +» 34 

PANAMA 2, > SCONES aie ORR rename mere 1 
Pee OLONG dn: A soe BU ae aes OF 
2. THE PANAMA Caner 5 die LPS SPA y Peay 2.) 
Reema A Ciry 203 2/94 50 
4. SUPPLEMENTARY FAcTS AND eons 56 
Ran CORNT DIBLIOGRAPHY.. 9.) .0>.  . — 88 

COAG tol ot Na 2 iil see nea ane ne 
TGHLISTORY . -; ree ROO 
2. THE AMERICAN ae eran SOF 
URE era) te ahatilen Mia, cl ie ID 
4. HonoLuLu . . 73 
5. SUPPLEMENTARY or AND pene 82 
Pe ECENT BIBLIOGRAPHY + </.y. fs ae, 5 BA 

PR SM a 1 ie wo aba gin Whnlgc ant alee Hie gua OS 
COO ee gs ts win es OO 
RE ARTLIOUAKE 9 ye) gs le eset Oe 
3. GOVERNMENT AND _ IMPERIALISTIC 

Pee et a we oat) gees wih eee OO) 
ASURELIGIONS | .-. Seaeto2 
5. JAPANESE wey ee AND Gist 

ONT SS Nig 2c ee eh tia aay oe LO 


7 


8 CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 
6. Tokyo, KaMakuRA, YOKOHAMA I17, 
7. NIKKO 
8. JAPAN Overs Tae 
g. Kyoto 
10. NARA 
Ir. OSAKA et ge 
12. Kost, INLAND ay oe ee 
13. NAGASAKI, SHIMONOSEKI . . . 157, 
14. SUPPLEMENTARY Facts AND FIGURES 
15. RECENT BIBLIOGRAPHY . 


V. ara : 
. THE JAPANESE ADMinee ee “ 
2. SEOUL 


VI. CHINA ; 

. History AND Govunnitere ; 

. INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL FAcTors . 
. CHINESE RELIGIONS 

. THE Opium Curse 

PEKING 

. DTIENTSIN 

~ DHANGHAL < °3 i) SS 
. Honc Konc . 

. CANTON . 

. Macao 

. Facts AND FIGURES 

. RECENT BIBLIOGRAPHY 


~ > 
HOMO ON AMNBW DH 


lal 
bo 


VII. PHILIPPINE ISLANDS : 
1. THE Unirep Statrs ADMINISTRATION 
2. Maniza . 
cP SAA panies Fa ACTS AND Fiocae 
4. RECENT BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . 


VIII. JAVA> Oo 2°.) ek 
1.- BATAVIA 4 3) )) 


PAGE 
119 

124 
130 
133 
144 
149 
156 
159 
160 
164 


165 
165 
170 


173 
174 
187 
198 
206 
208 
222 
223 
230 
238 
246 
248 
252 


253 
253 
265 
271 
275 


276 
279 


Soave NLD 'S 9 
CHAPTER PAGE 
2. BUITENZORG 282 
3. SOURABAYA 287 
4. BoROBUDUR . 288 
5. SUPPLEMENTARY Pacts AND pieced 289 
6. REcENT BIBLIOGRAPHY . 291 
IX. SINGAPORE ; 291 
1. THOMAS STAMFORD Rice tee : 292 
2. PLaces OF INTEREST 294 
3. SUPPLEMENTARY FACTS AND ee 295 
moenpU RMA fl ee a tt 207, 
1. History AND SEN Mant ete Wain CoN 
2. KANGOON . en eel 
3. SHwE Dacon PRtoDe 302 
4. SUPPLEMENTARY Facts AND F IGURES 310 
5. Recent BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . 31I 
XI. INDIA oy ae mee irae. be 
1. History AND escntprion hin! & Seu ey Lk 
2. GANDHIISM 318 
3. RELIGIONS OF ite Er Kt Be 331 
TTA ee ws 338 
5. DARJEELING . 348 
6. BENARES . 354 
7. THE SEPOY vik 366 
8. LucKNoWw 368 
9. CAWNPORE uot 370 
10. AGRA, THE Taj rhe Pie Sth 375 
11. THE AGRA Fort, SIKANDRA, ore es 
RRL oo su) as oe B83, SOO 
12 ELH... ON, art ee wy ty ce Ta 
PeeereaPUs AMBER...) 2) s % 399, 401 
14. BomMBay . . 402 
15. Mapras, igicaiocern Ree 414-417 
16. SUPPLEMENTARY Facts AND FIGURES 


hs 
NJ 


. RECENT BIBLIOGRAPHY . 


417 
420 


10 


CHAPTER 


XII. 


AITI. 


XIV. 


XV. 


CONTENTS 


CEYLON 30 20. ee 
1. COLOMBO .- .. sas 
2. KanpDy 
3. SUPELEMENTARY. Facts AND icons 


THE SUEZ CANAL 


1. THE CANAL. : 

2. SUEZ. °.. 2) 3 oe ee 

3. Port SAW 3s) + fe) eee 
EGYPT 

1. Carro 


2. Luxor, Kine Time ; 
3. SUPPLEMENTARY Facts AND oie 
4. RECENT BIBLIOGRAPHY . 


RECENT ’ROUND THE WORLD BIB- 
LIOGRAPHY 


INDEX e Le] ,e@ e @ e e Co e 


PAGE 
421 
423 
426 
434 


435 
436 
436 
440 


440 
441 
449 
456 
457 


458 
461 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


WINTER SCENE IN A Kyoto GarpEN . .. title page 
FACING PAGE 


ENTRANCE TO HAvANA HarspourR .. . 

Sie <LATHEDRAL OF PANAMA -.. . . .°. « 
WORKERS IN A Rick Firip .... . 

AN HawallaNn JUNGLE . . eee pee  Rae = 
AN HawatlAN PINEAPPLE FIELD Onan Ae 
Dr. VANDERVOoRT AMONG COFFEE BUSHES . . 
MINIATURE SHRINE CARRIED BY A BEGGAR. . . 
GRAVE WITH ‘TABLETS AND Foop OFFERINGS . . 
STAIRS IN A JAPANESE GARDEN... .. . 
BUPEPMMIVARIIEN 5 f° ll we 
DaisuTsu AT KAMAKURA . . A : 
APPROACH TO TEMPLE,—TorII AND Sra rerne ; 
CRYPTOMERIA AVENUE LEADING TOLNIKR Oe ey 
BateemerRioGk AT. NIKKO. .:.... i.) «6°. « 
CHILDREN ON TEMPLE STaIRS ..... . 
Pusiic ScHooL PLay-GROUND ..... . 
‘THEATRE STREET. . « « da tat ee 
CHILDREN PRAYING ON TEMPLE aark pha vuast le 


CoALING AT NAGASAKI. . : poy ts 
Coat MERCHANT DRAWING Br we A Hatr 
reer 


Pea CHINESE-FARK .. . . pera 
WoMAN CarryING BUILDING MATERIALS ene 
S1kKH TRAFFIC PonICEMAN AT Honc-Konc. . . 
CARRYING CHICKENS. Note BamsBoo SCAFFOLDING 
SAMPAN LIFE AT CANTON ... rae rg 
TEMPLE OF THE DeEap, Woop CARVINGS iGO Ae Aya 
eR MUTONUNTBERT OCENE ... «+o. + i 
AEN TUAMCTTUIZENESG 4 ws nw lt 
SrreET SCENE IN MANILA .. . - © « -« 


Java Girts IN Hote, Grounps. . ... . 
POpTAVANESE IVAUNDRY .. . - « «+ « «+ = 
BoTANICAL GARDEN AT BUITENZORG . .. . 


II 


20 
50 


12 ILLUSTRATIONS 


FACING PAGE 


SINGAPORE—OLp AND Nrw Locomorion . . . 


BURMESE WOMEN ENJOYING A SMOKE... . 
DrTaIL OF SHwEeE Dacon Pacopa .... . 
APPROACH TO SHWE Dacon PacopaA . .. . 
Muzz.Lep OxeN ‘TRAMPLING GRAIN... . 
CHARACTERISTIC INDIA CHILDHOOD . .. . . 
Jatin TEMPLE AT CALCUTTA 2°.) Ae eee 
BATHING IN THE GANGES AT BENARES. .. . 
“Hoty Man” at CatcuTra . J) oe 
STREET BARBER a ee 
SNAKE CHARMERS AT BENARES . . 9a) so Sees 


Woman Putinc “PUNKA’) FAN. > eee 
HosAINABAD, ‘““T'HE PALACE OF LIGHTS,” IN LuUCK- 
NOW ; 5 ORO on 
THE Taj MAHAL Seat ta y 
Man Divine Eicuty FEEt at FaTepur Srxrt ’ 
Peart MosogurE aT AGRA (AUTHOR IN FOoRE- 
GROUND) . . 2 ea 
ParsEE WoMAN AND ines So eee : 
Hinpu WomMaN CarryYING MANURE Carns FOR 
FeEiervcner et ee 
VULTURES AT THE ‘Towers or SILENCE) 2a 
AUTHENTIC BIRTHPLACE OF Mr. KIPLING. . . 


A .CINGHALESE MADONNA’ 4° S "0oo ea ee 
TEMPLE OF THE ToorH AT Kanpy (AUTHOR IN 

FOREGROUND) £0) °°. a en 
PyRAMID AND SPHINX 20) SS 
MopvEerN INNOVATIONS oe te Se 

MAPS 

1, “ROUND THE WoRLD)).. °) <2. eee 
2. West INDIES 4... «0 o0 ala) 


3. CANAL ZONE (000 2S. nek). 
4.. HAWAUAN ISLANDS...) 0.) ee 
5. PuHiviwpineE IsLaANDS~ .° >... Soon 
6. SouTHERN AsIA,—SINGAPORE, BuRMA, INDIA . 
RN epg ra Bae ey She 
8. EASTERN ASIA —JAPAN, Korea, Cuina 


296 
296 
308 
308 
316 
316 
332 
332 
342 
342 
356 

6 


inside back cover 


CoUsBiA 


“The Pearl of the Antilles” 


UBA was discovered by Columbus on his first voyage, 

a at which time he believed it to be the west shore of 

Asia. He called it Juana, after the daughter of his 

royal patrons, Ferdinand and Isabella. Subsequently it was 

named Santiago, after the patron saint of Spain. For a time 

the name was changed to Ave Maria, and finally it took its 

native name of Cuba. Velasquez, who founded Havana in 

1515, called it the “key to the New World and the bulwark 

of the West Indies.” 

In 1848 President Polk suggested the purchase of Cuba 

for one million dollars, but the plan was not approved. 


AMERICAN OCCUPATION 


Several years before the Spanish-American War, the 
American people were horrified by the frequent reports of 
the brutalities which General Weyler and his Spanish forces 
were visiting upon the Cuban people. ‘The Battleship 
Maine, of 6,650 tons’ displacement, with officers and crew 
numbering 354 men, was sent on a friendly mission to 
Havana, principally to afford a place of refuge for American 
citizens in case of any emergency. She arrived on January 
25, 1898, and about three weeks later, on the night of Feb- 
ruary 16, was destroyed by an explosion. “‘T’wo hundred 
and sixty-seven men were killed, only nineteen of those who 
were on the ship at the time, remaining uninjured. ‘The 
funeral procession in connection with the temporary inter- 
ment was the most imposing ever seen in Havana, the 


Bishop of Havana himself officiating. The dead were placed 
13 


14 GR. 


in a plot in Colon Cemetery, but later were removed to the 
National Cemetery at Arlington, Va. The top of the wreck 
was visible in the harbour until 1912, when the hull was 
dragged five miles out to sea and sunk. 

The Spanish-American War. ‘This incident proved to 
the American Government that Spain was an impossible 
neighbour. The blowing up of the Maine was undoubtedly 
the immediate cause of the Spanish-American War. It is 
unnecessary here to recount the destruction of Admiral Cer- 
vera’s Spanish fleet at Santiago on July 3, 1898, by Admirals 
Sampson and Schley, or the story of the storming of San 
Juan Hill under the leadership of Colonel Roosevelt. In 
December, the American troops entered Havana and the 
17,000 Spanish soldiers evacuated the city. On January 1, 
1899, Governor Castellanos, the last of the Spanish gov- 
ernors of Cuba, made a formal surrender of Spanish 
sovereignty. 

The Results of the American Intervention can be 
expressed in a few words: ‘The indescribable filth of the 
city was removed, and cleanliness and sanitation were substi- 
tuted ; the streets were paved; the parks and boulevards were 
restored and increased in number; docks were built; a sys- 
tem of pure water inaugurated; the Malecén, or sea-wall, 
constructed; public schools established and the yellow fever 
and other diseases eradicated. Havana, once a veritable 
pest-hole and a menace to the world, became a model city 
of exceptionally fine health conditions. —Thhe super-man work 
of General Gorgas in making such a sanitary transformation 
is one of the signal accomplishments of our time. Cuba as 
a whole also benefited by the work of reconstruction. 

The story of the elimination of yellow fever is a fas- 
cinating one. Doctors Walter Reed and Jesse W. Lazear 
became convinced that yellow fever was transmitted by the 
Stegomyia mosquito, and in the year 1900 Dr. Lazear made 
a test upon himself and others, submitting to the bites of 
mosquitoes which he considered infected. He himself died 
a martyr to science, contracting the disease in its most viru- 


AMERICAN OCCUPATION 15 


lent form. Others who submitted to the experiment sur- 
vived, but the test proved the source of the disease beyond 
any doubt whatever, and it also suggested methods of pre- 
vention. Within a little over a year thereafter, and during 
the intervening years since, owing to the measures of pre- 
caution inaugurated, not a case of yellow fever has occurred 
in Havana. ‘This is all the more remarkable in view of the 
fact that a recrudescence of the disease had occurred once or 
more annually for over one hundred and fifty years. 

The Platt Amendment. ‘The United States, during its 
occupation of Cuba, expended over ten million dollars in 
schoolhouses and equipments alone, and sent a thousand 
Cuban teachers to the Harvard College Summer School in 
1900, and others to the New York State Normal School. In 
1903 the American Government withdrew, turning Cuba 
over to the new Cuban Republic, only reserving Guanta- 
namo as a naval station. 

The Platt Amendment provides that there should be “no 
treaty with any foreign power that should endanger the 
independence of Cuba; no debt should be contracted for 
which the current revenue would be insufficient; the United 
States should have use of all naval stations, and maintain 
the right of intervention.” General Machado, the new 
President, recently announced that he would make a cam- 
paign against the Platt Amendment, expressing the hope 
that the United States might “relieve Cuba of its swaddling 
clothes.’ The Havana Prensa, however, said “The Platt 
Amendment is both a protection and a shield, since it con- 
tains mutual obligations and promises.” 

New Problems. Recently some new complications have 
arisen which have almost precipitated a crisis. General 
Crowder, the United States Ambassador, acting under the 
authority of the United States Government, gave approval 
to the Cuban Government of placing a loan of $50,000,000 
to pay fixed charges. This was based upon a demand that 
the Cuban Government should reorganise its method of col- 
lecting revenues, establish a strict accounting of government 


16 CUBA 


finances, and use a wiser method of handling floating in- 
debtedness and of carrying on judicial procedure. A new 
Cuban Cabinet, containing several of the ablest men in 
public life, was selected, but the politicians brought such 
pressure to bear on President Zayas that in April, 1923, he 
asked the new Cabinet to resign, and then reappointed all 
but four of these same members, omitting only the ones who 
were the uncompromising reformers. 

A part of the reform demanded by the United States was 
the abolishment of the graft system in connection with the 
Government Lottery. While the Government has received 
its ten per cent. tax, amounting to $3,500,000 annually, 
the politicians, headed by the son of former President 
Zayas who is Chief Director, have controlled the sales 
through ‘“‘commissionaries’ and have shared in the premium 
at which the tickets were sold. ‘This netted the ring several 
times as much as the Government received in revenue. Gen- 
eral Crowder did not demand the abolishing of the lottery 
altogether, partly because the Government insisted upon the 
revenue derived, and partly because the Cubans would be 
apt to patronise the lotteries of Mexico and Spain and thus 
send money out of the country. 

On August 1, 1923, both Houses of the Cuban Congress 
passed a new Lottery Bill, without making the restrictions 
demanded, but instead increased the lottery agencies to two 
thousand, thus doubling the number, and gave lottery off- 
cials a life tenure. ‘They at the same time adopted a reso- 
lution condemning the United States for alleged interference 
with Cuban affairs. General Crowder was called to Wash- 
ington by Secretary Hughes for conference with him and 
with President Coolidge in these important issues. 

The Tarafa Bill, which was also under dispute, not 
only provided for a unification of railroad lines, but also for 
the closing of forty-seven ports used for exporting sugar. 
These ports and the connecting railroads are largely the 
property of American investors and their closing would ren- 
der millions of dollars’ worth of property useless. It should 


MePpRIGAN OCCUPATION 17 


be remembered that American commercial enterprises have 
$1,350,000,000 invested in Cuba. 

Secretary Hughes on August 30, 1923, re-emphasised the 
vital relationship of the Monroe Doctrine to the national 
safety of our own country, implying that anything that 
would be detrimental to our interests might be a reason for 
intervention. “The Bill, however, was passed and signed 
September 25, 1923, but a compromise was later effected, 
protecting American interests. At present, relations are 
most harmonious. At a lunch in New York, President 
Machado said “Cuba has unlimited faith in the United 
States. Whenever a difference may arise, I am convinced 
that a just solution will be forthcoming.” In June, 1925, 
the United States ceded the Isle of Pines to Cuba, although 
thereby American investments have been greatly depreciated. 

It is fortunate that the first critical situation which has 
developed since 1906 should have been harmoniously ad- 
judicated. 

Doubtful Success in Self-Government. It is an open 
question whether the Cubans have the ability, at present, 
to properly conduct elections and carry on a stable self-gov- 
ernment. ‘The Conservatives represent the better element, 
but the Liberals are apt to hold the balance of power, be- 
cause they can influence the ignorant masses and dominate 
the elections. Illiteracy is increasing, there being fewer 
pupils (334,331 in 1922, and 272,892 in 1924) and teach- 
ers in the public schools; the roads are in wretched condi- 
tion; the Government Lottery dissipates $35,000,000 of the 
people’s money annually, and the finances have reeked 
with graft, public funds being used for private enterprises, 
and special laws being passed favoring big interests. One 
President, Jose Miguel Gomez, boasted that he and his 
friends had made away with $50,000,000. It would be a 
wise thing for the Cuban Government to accept a commis- 
sion of experienced Americans to supervise expenditures, 
sanitation, banks, commerce and schools, but it doubtless 
would not consent to such an arrangement. Fortunately, 


18 CUBA 


if the situation becomes impossible, the United States Gov- 
ernment can intervene. 

During the sugar panic of 1921, the Bank of Cuba failed. 
The Banco Espafiol also went into bankruptcy. 

Cuba’s Loyalty. Any just estimate of the relation of 
Cuba to the United States should not leave out of account 
her loyalty during the World War. She not only imme- 
diately lined up with the United States and drafted men 
for the army, using her small fleet for policing the Gulf of 
Mexico, but also co-operated in the Liberty Bond drive and 
Red Cross work. ’ 

It is also true that the attitude of Cuba, as a whole, has 
been appreciative of the assistance which the United States 
has given her, and of the sacrifice of men and money in- 
volved in the Spanish-American War. 


CUBAN HOUSES 


The houses of Cuba are built flush with the streets, with 
no exterior lawn or garden. They are from one to three 
stories high, constructed largely of limestone blocks and 
rough rubble work, and are extremely substantial, built 
almost like a miniature fortress. Each story is frequently 
from eighteen to twenty-five feet high. Heavy wooden doors, 
often double, studded with metal and furnished with pon- 
derous bolts, and sometimes fifteen feet high, give access 
into an inside court, where there is usually a garden of 
trees, flowers and vines, a fountain in the centre and pieces 
of statuary adding to the piquant ensemble. ‘The rooms are 
built around this inner court. Above on the flat roof, which 
is usually covered with dark red tiles, are parapets, enclosed 
for family gatherings at night. The very high windows 
are fronted with ornamental iron grill work, sometimes 
exquisitely artistic, which is also often seen on the balconies. 
There are many palatial homes built by sugar kings, mostly 
on the Prado, the Paseo de Tacon, and in the new Jesus 
del Monte and Cerro sections. 

The people live very much in the open, which has a pro- 


~> 


CUBAN HOUSES 19 


nouncedly good effect upon the health of the people. Win- 
dows and doors are thrown wide, a practice not conducive 
to privacy, as people eat, visit and do their courting in the 
most public fashion. As in other tropical countries, the 
walls of the usual house are bare and the carpetless floors 
are cemented or tiled. Upholstered furniture is not used, 
that made of wicker predominating. 

Three-fourths of the people in Havana live in densely 
populated slums, which are, however, reasonably sanitary. 
‘The tenements are usually oblong buildings of one story, 
with little apartments of one or two small rooms opening 
on a court. Frequently eight or ten people live in one of 
these small segments. 

Cuban People. The original Indian aborigines, to the 
number of perhaps 100,000, were enslaved by their Spanish 
conquerors and within a hundred years were completely 
wiped out by cruelty and overwork, or else were merged 
into the new Cuban race. Afterwards British planters intro- 
duced African slaves, and during the sixty years previous to 
1883, when slavery was abolished, 400,000 African slaves 
were brought to the Island. ‘There is a considerable pro- 
portion of negroes in the Island with more or less admixture 
of race. “The Cubans are predominantly Spanish, although 
it is hard to draw any exact line on account of the com- 
mingling of races. “The population has the proportion of 
one-half native white, one-fifth foreigners, one-sixth mixed 
races, and one-seventh negro. 

The Cubans represent the usual Spanish type, having 
care-free and light-hearted proclivities, being fond of danc- 
ing, music, and social festivities. “The people of the lower 
classes are rather irresponsible and perhaps, on account of 
the enervating climate, not very industrious. 

Among the popular sports are baseball, horse-racing, and 
especially a Spanish sport called “jai alai,’ which is an 
athletic game calling for agility and physical strength, 
usually played by professionals. Bull-fighting has been pro- 
hibited by law. 


20 CUBA 


The Cubans are very fond of betting and bookmaking, 
the latter being largely controlled by Americans, who are 
said to pay the Cuban Government roundly for the privi- 
lege. ‘The people are natural gamblers, and use almost any 
opportunity that lends itself to the gratification of this taste. 
For instance, sometimes four men will sit solemnly about a 
table, neither eating nor talking, each with a lump of sugar 
before him. Each man wagers that his particular lump will 
be the first to draw a fly, and the one whose sugar the first 
fly visits gathers in all the stakes placed in the centre of 
the table. Perhaps the scarcity of flies, because of the clean- 
liness of the city, adds zest to the sport. 


e 


HAV Ae 


Havana is a “Castilian city” magically transferred to the 
Caribbean, and makes an impressive picture. As one ap- 
proaches from the sea two cone-shaped hills south of the 
city, one rising 732 feet, indicate its site; then appear 
the lofty tower and gloomy walls of Morro Castle, with 
the Cuban flag waving from its pinnacle. La Punta, an old 
fort in the centre of a popular park and recreation ground, 
is seen on the right, and soon the whole city is visible, 
nestled around the crescent-shaped gulf. Near the shore 
the dark blue of the sea suddenly changes to a pale green, 
which when combined with the pink, blue, yellow and brown 
tints against a background of white, together with a cerulean 
sky and a vista of emerald hills, produces a strikingly pictur- 
esque effect. “The population of Havana is 538,720 (1925). 

The Harbour Entrance is rather narrow and bottle- 
necked, and is not more than 1,000 feet wide. Ships pass 
under the very guns of Morro Castle and the fortifications 
of Cabana Castle. ‘To the right one sees the Malecén, a 
comprehensive name which includes the great sea wall, to- 
gether with the adjoining park with its fine music pavilion, 
and the fashionable drive along Gulf Avenue which faces 


aOdavH VNVAVH OL ZONVUYLNGA 














HAVANA 21 


the sea tront. ‘The picture from the moving ship includes 
La Punta, the fort on the Point, the yellow Carcel or jail, 
and the large factory of the Havana Tobacco Company. 
Further away, on the harbour front, is the tower of La 
Fuerza Fort, and beyond is the tower of the old San Fran- 
cisco Church, the highest in the city. 

Havana Bay. SBeyond the harbour entrance lies Havana 
Bay, two and a half miles wide, large enough to accommo- 
date the greatest fleet in the world. ‘Thirty-five hundred 
ships enter this harbour each year. Here the Spanish treasure 
galleons assembled before starting together for Spain with 
their treasures. In Spanish days the harbour was the reposi- 
tory of the city sewage, and as the narrow entrance gave 
little opportunity of washing it out to sea, it became a menace 
to health. Since then its vile mud has largely been dredged, 
and no sewage is permitted to defile the water. 

Eighty per cent. of all the imports of Cuba and sixty per 
cent. of all exports are handled here in Havana. But ships, 
instead of going to the docks to discharge their cargoes, are 
unloaded by lighters because the lighterage interests are so 
absolutely in control. It costs as much to transfer goods 
from the ship to the dock as it does to haul them from 
Liverpool. This is a great handicap to the commerce of 
Havana. 

Cruising ships do not usually land at docks, but anchor 
somewhere near the spot where on the night of February 15, 
1898, the Maine was destroyed, and the tourists are taken 
by tenders to Caballeria Wharf, although the Machina 
Wharf is sometimes used as a steamer landing. 


SBEIEGHTSEEING 
THE PLAZA DE ARMAS 


Landing at Caballeria Wharf one enters into the adjoin- 
ing Plaza de Armas, which marks the spot where Havana 
was founded in 1519. This was long employed as the mili- 
tary drill square of the Spaniards, and now is a popular 


22 CUBA 


evening promenade. In the centre of the Park is a statue 
of King Ferdinand VII. 

La Fuerza. On the north side is the old fortress, La 
Fuerza, the “cornerstone” of Havana. It was built in 1538 
by Hernando de Soto, at that time Governor of Cuba, the 
fort thus being fifty years older than Morro Castle. It was 
not only used as a protection to the city, but for the safe- 
keeping of the cargoes of gold and silver, which were to be 
delivered to the royal treasury in Spain. It is quadrilateral, 
with double walls, having a bastion at each corner, and 
originally it had a moat. On the tower is the statue of an 
Indian girl holding a cross and facing the gulf. She is 
known all over the marine world as “La Habana.” ‘The 
bell in the tower was used by the sentinel to alarm the people 
if he saw a hostile fleet approaching. From this fort, Her- 
nando (or Fernando) de Soto, who discovered the Muis- 
sissippi, blithely set forth to conquer Florida, and when he 
failed to come back his wife, Dofia Isabella, died of a broken 
heart. 

The La Fuerza Fort had gone into decay and was used 
as a prison, but the government of American Intervention 
excavated the moat and rebuilt the moat wall, even replacing 
the drawbridge, in order to maintain this historic landmark. 
It is now used as a Hall of Records for the national archives. 

The El Templete, or Little Temple, stands near the 
spot where the priests first said mass in 1519. ‘Ihe present 
structure dates from 1828, at which time the images were 
brought from the Church and mass was celebrated in com- 
memoration of the first mass three hundred years before. 
The present structure was consecrated on the Spanish 
Queen’s birthday, and the Governor with his staff in full- 
dress uniform, with 5,000 of his troops, and the Bishop and 
his clergy in their robes, together with thousands of promi- 
nent citizens, made up the imposing procession. “The ancient 
ceiba, or silk-cotton tree, under which the mass was cele- 
brated, is gone, but the column in front of the Chapel marks 
the spot. ‘The bust of Columbus which stands in the court 


SIGHTSEEING 23 


is believed to be so good a likeness that the American painter 
Vanderlyn, when he desired to find the best available like- 
ness of Columbus, came to Havana to study this bust in 
connection with his painting, ‘““[The Landing of Columbus,” 
now adorning the rotunda of the Capitol at Washington. 
The El Templete is opened only on November 16 of each 
year, the official “birthday” of Havana. On its inner walls 
may be found several significant historical paintings by 
Escobar. 

The President’s Palace, formerly the palace of the 
Spanish Governor General, is an exceptionally fine building 
erected in 1834, and its colonnaded facade fills the entire 
east side of the Plaza de Armas. Its great entrance is 
crested with a medallion bearing the Spanish Arms. ‘The 
interior court, or patio, is encircled by arcades with spacious 
balconies and halls, and in the centre, surrounded by palms 
and flowering plants, is a fine statue of Columbus. ‘This 
palace is the official residence of the President of the Repub- 
lic, whose private apartments, reached by broad, marble 
stairways, are on the third floor. In connection with the 
residence are three state reception rooms, the one in which 
special guests are now received having formerly been the 
Spanish Governor’s room. In this palace are also the offices 
of the Mayor and other city officials, and a hall in which 
the city council meets. 

Here, on January 1, 1899, Castellanos, the last Spanish 
Governor, yielded his place to General William Ludlow, 
Commander of the Havana Division of the War Depart- 
ment of the United States. Three years and five months 
later, the Americans transferred their government to Palma, 
the first Governor of the Republic of Cuba. 

The Cathedral, usually spoken of as the Columbus 
Cathedral, although its real name is the Cathedral of thie 
Virgin Mary of the Immaculate Conception, is located on 
Empedrado Street. It is a Jesuit Church, built in 1704, on 
the site of an earlier church structure. It has deep-throated 
and sonorous bells, which were cast centuries ago, which 


24 CUBA 


can be heard over the city. Associated with it is the ecclesias- 
tical Court Room and the theological seminary of San Carlos. 

Entering the door on the left, one comes into the robing 
room where there are many specimens of richly embroidered 
and priceless vestments. From this room one passes into the 
chancel, close by the High Altar constructed of the purest 
Carrara marble. ‘The Church interior is of a beautiful 
dark marble, and is finished in heavily-carved mahogany 
woodwork. 

‘The Cathedral has been the centre of the mooted question 
as to whether the bones, for a time enshrined there, were 
those of the great discoverer, Columbus. ‘The usual version 
is that the body of Columbus, who died in Valladolid in 
1508, was buried in that city, and from thence was trans- 
ferred to the Cathedral in Seville, Spain. From Spain, in 
accordance with the wish expressed in his will, his body was 
brought to Santo Domingo and placed in front of the High 
Altar of the Santo Domingo Cathedral. When, in 1795, 
Santo Domingo passed into French hands, certain bones, 
reputed to be those of Columbus, were brought to the 
Havana Cathedral. In 1898, when Spain withdrew from 
Cuba, these remains were carried to Spain and restored to 
the Seville Cathedral. 

The authorities of the Cathedral at Santo Domingo 
asserted, however, that the true bones of Columbus were 
never removed, and that those which were taken away were 
the remains of a member of the family of Columbus in the 
next vault. They claim that their archives show that the 
true remains are in the battered leaden casket, with his name 
and titles roughly inscribed, which they still retain. “They 
have built an elaborate mausoleum of sculptured marble over 
this casket and placed it before the Cathedral altar, 


OTHER PLACES “OF thet 


The Malecon (the word means wall) is a great sea-wall 
enclosure which has an artistic music pavilion, supported by 


meacrs OF OI NTEREST 25 


twenty Ionic columns, overlooking the gulf and the harbour 
entrance. It marks the beginning, also, of Gulf Avenue, 
which extends in sinuous windings along the sea front, 
giving a combination of exquisite land vistas and turquoise 
sea views that make an entrancing picture. It is one of the 
world’s famous drives and leads out to the Vedado, about 
six miles distant, a suburb of charming homes set in tropical 
gardens. Here also is the American colony, with some 
beautiful residences. Everywhere are superb villas, largely 
of Spanish architectural types, but having modern ideas of 
construction and ornamentation, which are set in semi- 
tropical gardens, of varied horticultural design which enhance 
the charming effect. A moonlight night in the Malecdn 
and along the Gulf Avenue drive, is an experience that will 
make Havana memorable. 

The Parque Colon or Columbus Park, which formerly 
Was a mosquito marsh and later a drill ground for Spanish 
troops, was transformed by the Americans into a lovely 
park, with palms, fountains and flowers in an effective 
setting. 

The Indian Park, near Colon Park, takes its name from 
a marble fountain made in Rome, which has the allegorical 
figure of an Indian maiden as its central feature. 

The Students’ Memorial is a panel set in the wall of the 
former Spanish Commissary Building, the grounds of which 
were used for public executions. Here in 1871 eight students, 
the oldest only sixteen years of age, were shot. ‘They were 
part of a group of forty who were charged with having 
spoken offensively of, and having desecrated the tomb of, a 
certain Spanish journalist named Castanon, who was killed 
in a duel at Key West by a young Cuban who resented some 
of his published statements derogatory to Cuban women. 
It is said that the father of one of these young men offered 
the weight of his son in gold as a ransom, but the offer was 
refused. “The forty were lined up in a row, and every fifth 
boy was shot. It is stated that when one of them saw that 
his younger brother next to him was the fatal fifth, he 


26 CUBA 


quickly changed places with him and met his fate unflinch- 
ingly. The other thirty-two students were sentenced to be 
transported to Africa. After an investigation of this tragedy 
by the Cortez in Spain, the students were all pronounced 
innocent, and the thirty-two who remained alive were 
released. 

The Carcel is at the lower end of the Prado and is a 
yellow building which suggests a palace rather than a jail. 
It has a capacity of 5,000, but rarely has more than a 
thousand inmates. “The Americans when they entered 
Havana victoriously found many confined here, some of 
whom had been imprisoned for years without a trial. The 
Cuban garrote was used in this prison to inflict the sentence 
of death and consisted of a band encircling the neck, in which 
a screw was suddenly pressed upon the first vertebra at the 
base of the skull, producing instant death. Although the 
name “‘garrote’ is ominous, death by its use was really more 
merciful than by hanging. Here also public whippings took 
place, the victim being placed backward on a mule and then 
whipped through the city streets. 

The Botanical Garden, in connection with the Univer- 
sity of Havana, adjoins the President’s summer home, and 
contains avenues of royal palms, miniature cascades and 
grottoes, as well as tropical trees and flowers. Cuba has a 
flora of 3,350 plants, not including those which have been 
introduced from without. | 

The University of Havana was founded in 1728 in an 
old convent building, having stone walls over six feet thick, 
which is still standing, although more than three hundred 
years old. ‘The University is now located in the Piro- 
tecnia Militar and has over two thousand students. 

The National Theatre faces Central Park and accom- 
modates audiences of three thousand. It is also called the 
Tacon Theatre, in memory of the masterful Governor, who 
assumed office in 1834. It was built in 1837 and cost over 
$500,000. Nearly all the world stars, both in opera and 
in drama, have appeared here. 


Peers OF INTEREST 27 


The National Library has a famous collection of docu- 
ments and books about Cuba, which is second only to that 
in the British Museum on the same subject. It has been 
enriched by the private libraries of several prominent col- 
lectors. 

Central Park, as its name implies, is the real centre of 
the social life of the city. It has a fine statue of Jose 
Marti, one of the leaders of the Cuban rebellion. Some of 
the footpaths are completely arched by laurels with the under 
side cut horizontally so that one walks under a thick green 
roof. Landscape gardening of an artificial kind is prevalent, 
but a wealth of luxuriant vegetation and floral colour gives 
real charm to the Park. Here at night concerts are given, 
thousands of gay people crowding the promenades, and every- 
thing is ablaze with electric lights. The neighbouring res- 
taurants and cafés are brilliant with life and colour, and the 
scene is extremely animated. 

The Municipal Band, which plays here as well as in the 
Malecén, was one of the musical competitors who took 
honours at the Buffalo Exposition in 1902. Selections from 
Verdi, Chopin, Wagner, Mendelssohn, etc., are in constant 
evidence on its musical programs. The most prominent club 
houses, hotels and theatres are centred around this Park. 

The Prado, as remodelled and beautified by the Amer- 
icans, consists of a central double promenade, bordered by 
ample seats, and broad drives on either side. It connects 
Columbus, India and Central Parks with the Punta and 
the Malecén. It is the fashionable thoroughfare, both for 
pedestrians and conveyances. ‘This is the central scene of 
the Carnival festivities, during which time the drives and 
walks are congested with a merry crowd, and confetti and 
streamers and deafening noises are in evidence. ‘The resi- 
dences that face the Prado are among the most fashionable 
in Havana. On the east side of the avenue are the Spanish 
Casino and the white marble building of the Association of 
Clerks, a club which has some 27,000 members, each paying 
monthly dues of $1.50. 


28 CUBA 


Morro Castle was built after a scare caused by the ap- 
pearance of Sir Francis Drake in front of Havana in 1585, 
but as there was little to tempt him, he voluntarily with- 
drew. ‘This caused Philip II, surnamed “the Prudent,” to 
prepare against further possible encroachments, and in 1587 
work was begun on the El Morro (the word means promon- 
tory) as a means of defence. It was modelled after the 
Moorish fortress at Lisbon. It stands on solid rock, more 
than one hundred feet above the sea, and is surrounded by 
a moat seventy feet deep. ‘The rays from its lighthouse 
tower, built in 1844, can be seen at a distance of eighteen 
miles. 

The approach is by an inclined road, passing under the 
shadow of the frowning battlements, which is skirted with 
royal poincianas and laurels, and fringed with cactus hedges. 
One crosses the moat on a drawbridge, quite after the 
romantic fashion of the time “when knighthood was in 
flower,” and passes through massive gates and hall into an 
open court. All around are gloomy storerooms, kitchens, and 
dungeons with grated windows. Ascending the stairs to the 
rampart, one gets a fine panorama of Havana and all the 
surrounding environs. In the clear depths of the sea, which 
meets the outer wall, can be seen the large, fierce sharks 
which, according to the story, were often fed with the bodies 
of executed prisoners. Around the Castle are great bat- 
teries of the most powerful guns on the Island and nearby 
is a signal service station. 

The Fortress of Cabana, across the harbour, is on a hill 
rising abruptly one hundred feet out of the sea. The forti- 
fications are more elaborate than those of Morro Castle, 
but give an impression of vastness and weariness which does 
not minister to tourists’ enjoyment, but those who are inter- 
ested in historical and military matters will find it worth 
seeing. Cabana, however, has never fired a shot in defence 
of Havana, and is now worthless as a fortification. It has 
in the past largely served as a place for military prisoners, 
and there is some talk of changing it into a government 


Poets OP INTEREST 29 


prison for the convicts who are now confined in the Presidio. 
It is at present used by a corps of artillery, and also, in part, 
as a Cuban West Point, where the sons of some of the best 
families receive military training. 

An object of gruesome interest here is the wall where 
many Cubans were lined up and shot, the bullet marks being 
distinctly in evidence. 

In 1851 an American West Pointer, a native of Kentucky, 
joined an expedition, having for its object the freeing of 
Cuba, and after his capture he, with fifty others, was shot 
at the Fort of Atares, across the harbour. 

Colon Cemetery. It is not usually a part of tourists’ 
programmes to visit cemeteries, but the Colon Cemetery is 
so unique and distinctive that it is one of the conspicuous 
sights of Cuba. 

The entrance is through a great arch with triple gates. 
Over the central gate is a sculptured panel representing the 
Crucifixion and above the gate is a group of heroic figures 
representing Columbus bringing the light of religion to the 
New World. 

Just inside the entrance is the Memorial Tomb of 
General Calixto Garcia, and immediately beyond is the 
Students’ Monument which should not be confused with the 
Students’ Memorial found in the city. Both, however, refer 
to the cruel execution of innocent Cuban students by the 
Spanish authorities, to which reference has previously been 
made. 

A little further on is the conspicuous Fireman’s Monu- 
ment, erected to the memory of thirty firemen who perished 
in a conflagration in 1890, in which there was an explosion 
of hidden gunpowder, illegally stored. “The monument is 
seventy-five feet high and is surmounted by an angel with 
unfurled wings, holding a cross. Nearby is the tomb of 
General Maximo Gomez, the Chief in Command of the 
Cuban Army of Insurrection, known as the “Grand Old 
Man of Cuba.” 


The usual mode of burial is in a stone-encased niche, 


30 CUBA 


covered with a marble slab. It is rented for a brief term 
of years, and if thereafter no payment is forthcoming, the 
bones are taken out and thrown into the Osario, or Bone 
House. ‘This is a walled structure, seventy-five feet square 
and fifty feet deep, built in one corner of the cemetery, and 
into this great receptacle the remains of skeletons taken from 
the graves on which payment has been defaulted, are thrown 
helter-skelter. Some of the skeletons can be seen through 
various apertures in the walls, making a very gruesome 
spectacle. 

The Streets of Havana are kept commendably clean, 
being still under the system inaugurated by Colonel Waring 
in 1898. ‘There are many old-time narrow streets, but 
modern parts of the city have broad, attractive boulevards, 
notably the Prado. 

The Paseo of Carlos ITI, which has a marble statue of 
that King by Canova, as well as the Monument of the Five 
Goddesses, is one of these beautiful thoroughfares. 

Havana Cigars are made in many factories to which 
visitors are allowed access. “The Henry Clay factory, for 
instance, has 800 employés and makes 53,000 cigars daily. 

Churches. Under the Spanish administration the rule 
was that ‘“‘no others but Roman Catholics can be inhabitants 
of the Island.’”’ ‘This was so strictly enforced that the 
Custom House would not even permit a Protestant Bible 
to be admitted. As late as 1898 the request to read the 
Protestant service over the Protestant victims of the Maine 
was not granted, Captain Sigsbee reading part of it in his 
private carriage on the way to the cemetery and the rest in 
his room at the hotel. 

While the Cathedral is the most conspicuous church in 
Havana, the La Merced Catholic Church has the most 
aristocratic congregation. In its Sunday morning service the 
singing is accompanied by a large orchestra. It has some 
beautiful chapels, altars and paintings. “The Church of the 
Sacred Heart is conspicuous by its graceful single spire, 
visible over the city. 


a 


PLACES OF INTEREST 31 


Among Protestant churches are the Holy Trinity Cathedral 
(Episcopal) on Neptune Street, the Methodist Church on 
Virtudes Street, the Presbyterian Church on Salud Street, 
and the Baptist Church on Bragones Street. 


Mow is FTO TRAVELLERS 
Shopping Streets. Obispo and O’Reilly Streets are 


the main shopping centres, although they are quite narrow, 
trafic being permitted in but one direction. Each shop is 
also the parlour and living room for the proprietor and his 
family, and at noon is turned into a dining room. ‘The 
shops often have striking names, such as Hope, Modesty, 
Patience, La Diana, etc., as the Cubans are fond of poetic 
and romantic associations in names. 

There are a few distinctive articles to be bought in 
Havana, including fans with carved ivory handles, em- 
broidered or hand-painted on silk or lace. Mantillas, Cuban 
drawnwork, hand-made laces and embroideries, walking 
sticks, Panama hats, snake-skin purses and belts, feather 
work, photographs and jewellery, are among the lures dis- 
played to tempt the tourist. It should, of course, be under- 
stood that everything that is not typically Cuban can be 
bought to better advantage in the United States, and that 
similar work, much better, and very much cheaper, can be 
purchased in Japan and China. 

The Restaurants and Cafés are popular institutions, 
and the prices are high, especially to tourist Americans. 
Several distinctive temperance drinks make an interesting 
experiment, particularly the pina fria, made from fresh pine- 
apples. There are also limonada, or lemonade, naranjada, 
or orangeade, tamarindo, made from tamarind paste, orchata, 
made of milk of almonds, and especially panal, or honey- 
comb drink. ‘The ices, ice cream, cakes and sweets are of 
excellent quality. 

The wine usually drunk by Cubans with their meals 
comes from Spain. The combination of coffee (the beans 


32 CUBA 


of which have been burned to a crisp), and salted milk is 
an acquired taste, but it is said that such coffee is robbed of 
its toxic properties. 

The city water, which is carried from four hundred 
springs nine miles to the south, is rather hard but quite pure, 
being free from all organic matter. 

Fruits are abundant, including oranges, grapefruit, 
bananas, limes, citrons, mangoes, alligator pears, pineapples, 
figs and guavas. Vegetables are extremely varied and of 
first quality. ‘The three important markets are Iacon, Colon 
and Christina. 

Hotels. The Plaza and Seville are both fine hotels, 
although the prices are very high. “The Plaza has an attrac- 
tive roof garden where meals are served, from which a view 
of the city and all the neighbouring environment, including 
the harbour, can be seen to advantage. 

Money. ‘Cuba has no paper money, United States bank- 
notes forming the medium of paper currency. “The Spanish 
coinage in silver is in twenty- and forty-cent pieces, instead 
of twenty-five and fifty as with us. 

Climate. ‘The heat is not excessive, see rather 
humid. The highest temperature recorded is 100.6° F., but 
the nights are reasonably cool. 

Taxis are on the zone system, the charge being thirty 
cénts within each zone, and an additional charge of thirty 
cents for every zone entered. It is well in hiring an auto 
to make a definite bargain, otherwise the charges will prove 
to be excessive. 

The United States Consulate is in Room 505, National 
Bank Building, and Americans will always be able to get 
counsel and co-operation, as may be needed. 


SUPPLEMENTARY FACTS AND 
FIGURES 


Cuba is ninety miles from Key West. It has a coast line 
of 2,000 miles and more deep harbours than any other coun- 


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SUPPLEMENTARY FACTS 33 


try in the Western Hemisphere. Of its 1,300 islands 
(mostly coral reefs), the most prominent, next to Cuba, is 
the Isle of Pines, recently ceded to Cuba by the United States. 

Cuba has a commanding position not only among the 
islands of the West Indies, but also in its relation to Florida 
and our Southern States. The fact that it is a natural port 
of call en route to the Panama Canal adds not a little to 
its strategic, as well as its commercial importance. 

Cuba, except for a brief British occupancy in 1762 (a year 
later England exchanged it for Florida), was a Spanish 
possession until December 10, 1898, when, by the Treaty 
of Paris, it was relinquished to the United States. From 
this date to February 21, 1901, there was a provisional 
United States Government under the direction of the War 
Department, and in 1903 a Cuban Republic was established, 
modelled after that of the United States. Certain reserva- 
tions were made by the United States in the Platt Amend- 
ment, which included the Right of Intervention. Owing to 
local troubles, there was again a provisional United States 
Government from August, 1906, to January, 1909. 

The President is General G. Machado, whose term ex- 
pires May 20, 1929. With him is associated a cabinet of 
ten, whose members are in charge of the various govern- 
mental departments. ‘There is a Senate of twenty-four mem- 
bers (four from each Province), which meets in a building 
facing the Plaza de Armas, and a House of one hundred and 
eighteen members, one for every twenty-five thousand in- 
habitants, which has its building in Officio Street. Each of 
the six provinces is ruled by a local Governor. 

The Rural Guard, or constabulary of the Island, is com- 
posed of over four thousand men, stationed at two hundred 
and fifty posts. They patrol the country, maintain order in 
towns and villages, and act as guards on railway trains. 

Cuba has six provinces and fifteen hundred municipal 


34. CUBA 


districts. Its area is 44,215 square miles, or larger than 
Pennsylvania, and its population in 1925 was 3,368,923, 
of which 2,294,115 are white, 830,791 are colored, and the 
remainder mixed. Its length is seven hundred and thirty 
miles and the breadth from twenty-five to one hundred 
miles. 

Each municipality has a Board of Education, the schools 
being free and the attendance compulsory. In 1924 there 
were 272,892 children enrolled, with 5,970 teachers. There 
are also various institutions for advanced education. ‘The 
University of Havana (founded 1721) had 2,272 students 
in 1919, of whom 1,457 were in medicine and pharmacy. 

The revenue for 1924 was $59,670,000, and the expendi- 
tures $49,238,322. The National Debt is $105,697,300. 

There is a standing army of 10,941 men, and the navy has 
976 men. 

Cuba is wonderfully productive, having yielded a sugar 
crop in the year 1924 of 4,076,000 tons. ‘There are 183 
sugar mills. ‘The estimate for 1925 is 4,700,000 tons. To- 
bacco, coffee, cacao, cereals and fruits are raised and ex- 
ported. ‘Twelve million gallons of rum are also produced 
annually. In 1919, 8,900 vessels entered Cuban harbours. 
There are 3,020 miles of railway. 

The National Bank of Cuba at Havana had assets in 
1920 of 145,000,00 pesos, or $72,500,000, but it has since 
become bankrupt, although now reorganised. 

Cuba’s imports in 1923 were $267,627,871, of which 
$180,230,840 came from the United States. Its exports 
were $418,119,979, of which $366,639,782 went to the 
United States. In 1920 there were 314 commercial com- 
panies with a total capital of $229,662,000. 


| RECENT BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Anglo-South American Handbook (Central America, Mex- 
ico, Cuba), ’22, Macmillan. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 35 


Crusading in the West Indies, W. F. Jordan. ’22, Revell. 

Journal of a Lady of Quality in the West Indies, J. Shaw. 
21, Yale University Press. 

Cubans of Today, W. R. Parker. ’19, Putnam. 

In the Sunshine at Havana, C. D. Burrage. Rosemary 
Press. 

History of Cuba, W. F. Johnson. ’20, Buck & Co. 

Cuba, Past and Present, A. H. Verrill. ’14, Dodd. 

Cuba, I. A. Wright. ’12, Macmillan. 

Cuba, F. Fairford. ’13, Macmillan. 

In Darkest Cuba, U, G, Gonzales, ’22, State Co. 


PANAMA 


“The Open Gate between two oceans” 


P AHE Isthmus of Panama (the Indian name for 
fish) was first visited in 1499 by a certain Span- 
iard, Alonso de Ojeda,who founded a colony which 

he called Neuva Andalucia. “Three years later Columbus 

established a settlement in Porto Bello Bay on his fourth 
and last voyage, and from this Bay he hoped to find a pas- 
sage to India, as he conceived Panama to be on the shores 
of Asia. | 

Balboa. The next explorer to visit this region was 

Balboa, who after leaving San Domingo in a cask as a 

stowaway in a ship under the command of Ensiso, became 

the recognised leader before the expedition ended, and suc- 
ceeded Ensiso as the governor of the new colony of Darien. 

One of the native rulers told him about the great waters on 

the other side of the divide, which led him in 1513 to take 

with him a force of Spaniards and natives and to cross 

Panama, choosing his way along the route of the present 

Canal. He climbed the divide and reached the Pacific at 

a Bay which he named San Miguel (a name still retained) 


36 PANAMA 


because it was on St. Michael’s Day. Coming to the open 
sea, he waded out into the Pacific, taking possession of the 
“Great South Sea,” as he called it, in the name of the King 
of Spain. At first he was hailed as an epoch-making ex- 
plorer, but a conspiracy was formed against him within 
four years thereafter, and he was tried and shot at the age 
of forty-two. 

Balboa was probably the best administrator and states- 
man of his day, but like Raffles, that other empire builder 
of Singapore fame, he was not appreciated by his own coun- 
try or by the people of his own time. 

In 1819 Panama freed itself from Spanish domination 
under Simon Bolivar, the Liberator, and formed a coalition 
with Colombia, but withdrew in 1842 and again in 1857. 
Hence it is clear that its relation to Colombia has been 
neither long nor loyal. 

Canal Projects. When the wealth of the new coun- 
tries on the Pacific side of South America and Central 
America was discovered, the gold was carried across the 
Isthmus on the backs of mules over a road called the “Gold 
Road.” 

As far back as 1529, de Suadedra, a companion of Balboa 
and Cortez in their explorations, projected plans for a canal. 
Later a certain Portuguese navigator, Galolo, wrote a book 
projecting a plan for a canal, and since then the Dutch, 
English, Belgians and Spaniards outlined canal schemes and 
finally came the French enterprise which proved such a 
fiasco. 

In 1849, during the California gold rush, certain Ameri- 
cans constructed a railway over the Isthmus, the first train 
crossing in 1855. 

Then de Lesseps came into the field and, backed by a 
Company which he had organised, he bought this railroad 
for $25,500,000. ‘The actual work of the French Canal 
was begun in 1881 on the basis of a sea-level canal. 

Immensely valuable machinery was sent from Europe, but 
fraud, inefficiency, and disease caused the French Company 


CANAL PROJECTS 37 


to spend $300,000,000 upon only a fraction of the work to 
be done; after which it went into bankruptcy in 18809, 
whereupon a new French Company took over the rights and 
did some additional digging. 

The United States Canal Plans. In 1898 the Spanish- 
American War showed the great need of such a canal to 
the United States, from the fact that the battleship Oregon 
had to make a long and dangerous trip of 13,000 miles to 
meet the emergency at Cuba. 

The first commission of engineers who were appointed by 
the United States Government were favourable to the 
Nicaragua Canal, partly because the French company de- 
manded a price for their Panama rights which was regarded 
as excessive. Subsequently the French Company reduced 
this price, as they realised that if the Nicaragua Canal was 
built, their property would be worthless. During the inter- 
val of negotiation a heated debate ensued in the United 
States as to the respective advantages of the Panama and 
Nicaragua Canals, prominent engineers taking opposite sides. 
This was due to the fact that while the Nicaragua Canal 
was longer, it had fewer natural barriers to remove. 

The Atlantic side, where the proposed Nicaragua Canal 
would have started, was under the control of Great Britain, 
and the famous Bulwer-Clayton ‘Treaty provided that 
neither country should have exclusive control of the canal 
or erect fortifications. 

Finally the Panama route was decided upon and the pur- 
chase from the French Company and the arrangements for 
securing the leased territory were authorised by the Spooner 
Act in 1902. By the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty of 1gor, 
Great Britain waived the right of joint control on condition 
that the Canal should be ‘free and open to the vessels of 
commerce and of war, to all nations on terms of entire 
equality.” 

An effort was then made to negotiate a treaty with Colom- 
bia whereby the United States should make an initial pay- 
ment of $10,000,000 and $100,000 a year rental. Colombia 


38 PANAMA 


refused, and a few days later the Province of Panama de- 
clared her independence from Colombia and established the 
Republic of Panama. The United States Government, 
under President Roosevelt, immediately recognised the Re- 
public of Panama as an independent country, and at once 
negotiated terms for the leased lands required for the Panama 
Canal. ‘The agreement of the immediate payment of 
$10,000,000 and an additional annual payment of $250,000 
was consummated. 

President Roosevelt was severely criticised by many United 
States citizens who were sticklers for the theoretic rights of 
nations, but who seemed oblivious to the practical necessity 
of the Canal. Some even asserted that he was a party to the 
secession of Panama, and that our Government co-operated 
with Panama in its withdrawal from Colombia. ‘This, how- 
ever, was not substantiated by proof and is very improbable. 


GOVERNMENT CONTROL 


The United States Government, under the direction of 
the Secretary of War, appoints a Governor of the Panama 
Canal, who is also President of the Panama Railroad. 
There are various divisions: Marine, Dock, Dredging, Elec- 
trical, Health, Supplies, etc. 

There are two distinct sets of quarters for Canal em- 
ployés widely removed from each other, one being occupied 
by the “gold roll,” or Americans to the number of 3,000, 
who are paid in United States currency, and the other by 
the “‘silver roll,” largely dark-skinned people numbering 
9,000, who are paid in silver pesos. Each quarter has its 
own recreation grounds, club houses and amusements. It is 
said that there is a government rule forbidding any employé 
to use the name of “nigger.” 

A ‘‘Silver’’ Strike. In 1920, there was a general strike 
of the “silver” men for higher wages, which was promptly 
broken by the “gold” employés, who volunteered for extra 
service and did the work of the strikers. The proprietor of 


GOVERNMENT CONTROL 39 


the Tivoli Hotel and his guests (many of them government 
officers) cooked and served their own meals. Others helped 
in the Commissary, and in a few days the ‘“‘silver” people 
went back to work at a slightly lower wage than they had 
previously been paid. 

Care of United States Employés. The government 
store-houses, together with its ice-making and refrigerating 
plants, laundries, hospitals and hotels, can take care of its 
25,000 resident people and an unlimited number of travellers, 

Government employés both here and at Ancon and Balboa 
on the Pacific side are well housed. ‘There are detached 
houses for married couples, commensurate with their rank 
and needs. Quarters are provided for rooming a number of 
single men, and there are also accommodations for single 
women. Many of the latter cook their own breakfasts and 
sometimes their lunches, using electrical devices in their own 
rooms, and get only their dinner at the Commissary. 

This Commissary is under government control and fur- 
nishes excellent food at a low price. “The Government farm 
at Corozal supplies fresh eggs and all dairy products. A 
luncheon of rolls and butter, a glass of milk, a fruit salad, 
with ice cream and cake, may be had for about twenty-five 
cents. A cafeteria service for those who prefer it reduces 
even this small expense. 

Government stores give opportunity for the purchase of 
all clothing, toilet articles, drugs, stationery, books, food 
supplies, etc., at much lower rates than the articles ordi- 
narily cost in the United States, the reason being that the 
Government does not operate these stores as a money- 
making proposition. 

No currency is offered in payment for anything bought 
in the Zone, a Commissary Book being used in lieu of money. 
On payment of $15, this book is issued to each employé, 
enclosed in a neat pasteboard cover, bearing his name, date, 
number and department. It contains a 300-inch strip of 
narrow paper folded back and forth for convenience in han- 
dling, with heavy ruled lines crossing at each inch. Each 


40 PANAMA 


inch of space is subdivided with lighter ruling into five 
parts representing one cent each. When a purchase is made, 
the amount is computed, and the proper length is detached 
from the owner’s book. 

Because of the extreme humidity, all private houses and 
residence quarters are provided with a “dry closet” for 
clothing, in which a specially designed electric lamp heats 
the air and keeps the clothing dry. No gummed envelopes 
are sold in Panama and hotel desks are equipped with jars 
of paste to be used in sealing letters. 


THE PANAMA CANAL 


Canal Facts. ‘The Panama Canal is like a spiritual, as 
well as a physical, oasis. It is four times as large as the 
District of Columbia, and quite as safe, although tropical 
diseases lie in wait in the adjoining jungles. “The death rate 
is 13.47, comparing favourably with that of the United 
States. Panama stands as a shining evidence of the ability 
of white men to live and work in the humid tropics when 
sanitation, transportation, medical service, and other advan- 
tages are present. 

‘The building of the Panama Canal by the United States 
Government has, as Captain Mahan said, “changed the 
Caribbean Sea from a local terminus into one of the greatest 
sea highways of the world.” 

Colon and Panama are outside the Zone, but in both places 
the United States Government is supreme in matters of 
defence, sanitation and water supply, and has the right to 
maintain order in case the Republic of Panama finds itself 
unable to do so. 

The Canal does not run east and west, as commonly sup- 
posed, but runs south from Cristobal (the American suburb 
of Colon) to Gatun, and from there southeast. It is rather 
confusing at Panama to see the sun rise in the Pacific Ocean. 

As compared with the Suez Canal, Panama is 5014 miles 
long, Suez being 104; 41 feet deep, Suez being 31-36; there 
having been 251,000,000 cubic yards excavated, instead of 


CANAL FACTS 41 


80,000,000} and the cost being $368,543,000, while that of 
Suez was $152,760,000. 

The Canal Zone contains an actual land area of 332 
~miles, although including the Islands in the Bay of Panama 
and water areas, the United States controls 502 square 
miles. “The civil population of the Zone in 1924 was 27,143, 
of whom 7,805 were Americans. No private individuals 
or traders can acquire property there. 

The Canal is forty-four miles long and the Channel is 
from 300 to 1,000 feet wide. Summarised in a word, it 
follows the valley of the Chagres River on the Atlantic side, 
is raised by a series of three locks, passes through the divide 
at the Gaillard (Culebra) Cut, is lowered by a series of 
three locks, and continues down the valley of the Rio Grande 
to the Pacific. Ihe maximum depth is forty-one feet. “The 
average time for passage of a ship is from seven to eight 
hours, although the record is four hours, ten minutes. The 
maximum traffic capacity is thirty-six ships a day. 

While the direct distance between the oceans is thirty- 
four miles, the Canal channel is forty-two miles long. By 
the building of Gatun Dam, the Gatun Lake was formed, 
with a level of eighty-five feet above the sea, thus saving 
eighty-five feet of cutting between Gatun and Pedro Miguel, 
a distance of twenty-four miles. 

On the Atlantic side there is a series of three Gatun 
locks, after seven miles of sea level. ‘These three locks 
raise an ocean steamer eighty-five feet. “The ship then passes 
under its own steam through Gatun Lake fifteen miles, to 
Bas Obispo, and then nine miles through the Gaillard Cut, 
all on the highest water level-of the Canal. 

On the Pacific side there is the Pedro Miguel Lock at 
the end of the Gaillard Cut, then Miraflores Lake, one mile 
wide, followed by two Miraflores locks, after which it is 
eight miles on sea level to the Pacific. “These locks average, 
including approaching walls, about a mile in length and are 
constructed in pairs to admit of ships going in opposite 
directions at the same time. Each lock has a length of 1,000 


42 PANAMA 


feet, a width of 110 feet, and a depth of 70 feet, the lower 
Miraflores lock being somewhat deeper to allow for the 
variations in the Pacific tides, which are from twelve to 
twenty feet, while on the Atlantic side the tide variation is 
only twenty-two inches. Strange to say, the mean level of 
the Pacific at the Isthmus is eight inches higher than the 
mean level of the Atlantic. 

The lock gates are steel structures seven feet thick and 
65 feet long. Some are 47 feet high and weigh 390 tons; 
others 82 feet high and weigh 730 tons. 

Ships are towed through the locks by electric “mules” 
which run on tracks along the bank of the locks. ‘They 
handle the starts and stops of a huge steamer as a child 
would direct a baby carriage. Fender chains are lowered 
when the ship passes and raised by electric machinery to 
avoid risks of vessels jamming against the locks. 

‘The entire action of the locks is operated by the electricity 
generated from a part of the overflow of the waters of 
Gatun Dam. One man at each group of locks controls all 
the complicated machinery, including the emptying of as. 
much as five million cubic feet of water in the lock chambers,. 
the lifting and lowering of the lock safety chains, and the: 
swinging of the giant gates. 

Both entrances to the Canal are protected by great break-. 
waters, and there is a remarkable system of lighting here 
and elsewhere in the Zone, making the Canal equally usable 
at night. “These entrances and other parts of the construc- 
tion have been fortified in the most modern and elaborate 
way and should make the Canal almost immune against 
naval aggression, although a bombing airplane or a traitorous. 
dynamiting might easily put it out of commission. 

A dry dock, 1,000 feet long and 120 feet wide, can easily 
handle the largest vessel afloat. 


CRISTOBAL 


Cristobal is an American suburb of Colon, within the 
Canal Zone itself, and was built to accommodate its admin- 


See OBAL, COLON 43 


istrative offices and its employés. The houses are mostly of 
concrete with modern conveniences and are all mosquito- 
proof, being screened with copper gauze. 

Near the sea wall is the former house of Ferdinand de 
Lesseps, now used by the Isthmian Canal Commission. 

Everywhere are seen the triumphs of American control,— 
concrete wharves, cold storage plants, electric laundries, a 
Club House, Army and Navy Y. M. C. A.’s, wireless sta- 
tions, connecting railway tracks and the Atlantic coaling 
plant, the largest of its kind in the world. 


COLON 


Colon is sometimes called Aspinwall, the name being 
taken from one of the founders of the first Panama railroad. 
It was formerly surrounded by mosquito-breeding swamps, 
which have since been drained by the American adminis- 
tration. 

Colon is now an up-to-date, sanitary city. It has been 
greatly modernised since April, 1915, at which time twenty- 
two blocks and 430 buildings were destroyed by fire, involv- 
ing a loss of $3,000,000. Modern concrete buildings have 
taken the place of the old wooden structures. 

The great Breakwater which protects the Atlantic en- 
trance of the Canal will be seen on the right as the steamer 
approaches. It is 11,700 feet long and cost $5,500,000. 
The foundation for this breakwater was formed by dropping 
twenty-five-ton concrete blocks into Limon Bay. 

Among the interesting buildings are the Panama Govern- 
ment building, the Panama railroad station, the hospital and 
the commissary. There is a Strangers’ Club at Colon which 
gives cordial welcome to visitors, in which Americans espe- 
cially will feel very much at home. 

The Americans associated with the Canal here and at 
Panama indulge in various athletic sports, such as swim- 
ming, fishing, motoring, baseball, golf and tennis. They 


44 | PANAMA 


also can enjoy the theatre, dancing, bull-fighting and horse- 
racing, as well as the native entertainments and dances. 

Washington Hotel, which is operated by the United States 
Government, has accommodations for 180 guests. In front 
of the hotel entrance is a bronze statue of Columbus pro- 
tecting an Indian maiden. ‘This statue formerly stood be- 
fore the house of de Lesseps and was presented to Colombia 
by the Empress Eugenie in 1866. Here also is a decorated 
column with the sculptured portraits of Aspinwall, Chaun- 
cey and Stevens, the three great pioneers of the first Panama 
railway. 


CANAL SIGHTSEEING 


After leaving Colon by motor car on the way to Gatun, 
the visitor passes Mount Hope Cemetery, sometimes known 
as Monkey Hill (owing to the number of monkeys found 
in this vicinity when the French first began operations), 
where multiplied thousands of the victims of the yellow 
fever scourge lie buried. Old Cristobal, Fort Randolph, 
France Field, which is an aviation station, Coco Solo, a 
naval station, and Fort Davis, a military station near Gatun, 
are all passed on the way to Gatun and add to the zest and 
variety of the drive. 

Of course the Canal itself is the supreme object of inter- 
est, and tourists with but a brief time at their disposal will 
hardly feel it of sufficient importance to inspect the details 
of the lesser objects of interest. Much of the time, how- 
ever, should be spent in making a complete inspection of the 
Gatun Locks, where ships will be passing in both directions 
every hour of the day, as well as that marvellous example 
of engineering,—the Gatun Dam and Spillway. Cruise 
passengers are usually taken from the steamer to Colon by 
a short ride by train, landing them at the Colon railway 
station, where automobiles ordinarily are in waiting. Meals 
of a most satisfactory standard generally are served at the 


Sete ol GH rSEAING 45 


attractive Hotel Washington, which is usually swept with 
ocean breezes and commands a lovely sea view. 

Gatun Dam, 6.7 miles from Colon and located at the 
lower end of the Chagres valley, is nearly one and a half 
miles long, including the Spillway, and half a mile wide 
at its base, gradually sloping to a width of one hundred feet 
at the top. It is constructed of clay and sand (which was 
dredged from the Canal) wedged between two great walls 
of rock. ‘The crest of the dam is one hundred and five feet 
above the sea, being twenty feet above the surface of the 
lake. It means little to say that it contains 21,000,000 cubic 
yards of excavated material. The dam itself is largely con- 
cealed by shrubbery, the east wing being laid out with a 
nine-hole golf course. 

Gatun Lake has been formed by the accumulated 
waters of the Chagres River restrained by the Gatun Dam. 
It has an area of 164 square miles, being about the size of 
Lake Geneva in Switzerland. 

The Spillway is in the form of the arc of a circle and is 
808 feet long and 285 feet wide. It regulates the depth of 
the Lake and empties surplus water which flows into the 
Atlantic, following the old channel of the Chagres River. 
There are fourteen gates to this Spillway, and one or more 
can be opened, according to the amount of excess water. 
At the northern end is the hydro-electric generating station 
of 13,140 kilowatt capacity, which uses the water-power of 
the overflow to generate light and power for the entire 
Canal Zone, including locks, shops and industrial plants, the 
distributing current being taken across the Isthmus along 
the Panama railroad tracks. 

There are Canal Villages near the Locks, provided by 
the Government, each with its clubhouse, schools, churches, 
dispensaries, restaurants, etc. Only people connected with 
the Government service may live permanently in the Canal 
Zone. 

The Gaillard (Culebra) Cut is the most mammoth en- 
gineering feat in Panama, or for that matter, in the world. 


Wo 4 ee PANAMA 


It is nine miles long, representing a total excavation of 
230,000,000 cubic yards, of which only 20,419,720 cubic 
yards were dug by the French. Considering that the French 
planned to make a sea-level canal which would have re- 
quired digging an extra eighty-five feet for the distance of 
twenty-four miles from Gatun to Pedro Miguel, and in view 
of the fact that they spent $300,000,000 in digging less than 
one-tenth of the amount required for a Canal with locks, 
it would have cost multiplied billions to have finished their 
work on the basis attempted. Even with the lesser exca- 
vation made by the United States Government, it is esti- 
mated that the material taken out would make sixty-three 
pyramids like that of Cheops, and the cement used in the 
construction of the Canal would make a solid pyramid 
nearly as high. 

This Cut is colloquially called the ‘Big Ditch” and rep- 
resents a channel nine miles long with an average depth of 
120 feet, varying from 300 to 1,000 feet wide. It is said 
that fifty million pounds of dynamite were needed for the 
blasting, and that the material, if loaded on the cars of a 
single train, would reach around the world four times. 

Digging through Gold Hill and Contractor Hill, where 
there is a sheer cutting of 375 feet, and hauling away this 
stupendous mass of material is almost a superhuman accom- 
plishment. When one adds the fact that the various slides 
added hundreds of thousands of tons, sometimes making a 
channel for invading floods from diverted streams, it adds 
to the achievement that would seem to have been possible 
only to Titans. 

The Culebra Cut, as it was known prior to 1913, was at 
that time named the Gaillard Cut in commemoration of 
Lieut.-Col. D. D. Gaillard, who had charge of this work 
from 1907 to its practical completion in 1913, and who 
broke down from the strain and died soon after. 

Just after the passing of the Prince of Wales on H. M. S. 
Renown, a huge boulder weighing fifty tons crashed down 
the mountain and blocked the channel for some hours. 


A 79°55! 











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MAP OF THE $ 
UNITED STATES ; A TABOGUILLA 
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Hammond's 5 x7 Map|of United States Canal Zone 
~opyright by*C:S. Hammond & Co.. N.Y. 





79°55! 








CANAL SIGHTSEEING 47 


The Pedro Miguel Lock, sometimes familiarly spoken 
of as the “Peter McGill,” is similar to the Gatun Lock 
and lowers a ship 30.5 feet to Miraflores Lake, which is a 
mile wide. ‘This also has a Spillway with eight gates. Then 
come the two Miraflores Locks (both duplicated in case of 
emergency), which together lower the ship 54.7 feet to the 
level of the Pacific. From this point the Canal continues 
eight miles to the ocean. 

A Masterpiece of Construction. To view these forty- 
two miles of Canal construction and realise what such a 
penetration of Panama jungles and hills meant, will make 
a man gasp with amazement even though he be well versed 
in engineering. ‘To cut the Western Hemisphere so that a 
ship can pass in six hours, saving a trip around Cape Horn, 
which takes nearly as many weeks, is certainly a masterpiece 
of twentieth century accomplishment. ‘The fact that one 
man at each of the two systems of locks, touching a key at 
the Control House, can set the machinery in motion that 
operates the massive gates and fills and empties the immense 
locks, is one of the world’s marvels. ‘The silence and speed 
of operation in emptying and filling the huge locks, which 
will pass all steamers except several like the Leviathan or 
Majestic (we will not decide the controversy as to which is 
the larger), is a veritable miracle of science. 

It is now entirely clear that the Canal never could have 
been completed under the old unsanitary conditions. It was 
the discovery that yellow fever was carried and trans- 
mitted by the Stegomyia mosquito and the remarkable sys- 
tem of scientific extermination which followed, together 
with the new sanitary methods employed, that made success 
possible. 

All the features of construction have been employed be- 
fore, but both in its mechanical and electric appliances the 
Panama Canal is the last word, and its size is so stupendous 
as to stagger the imagination. It represents the United 
States at its best in financial integrity, sanitation, engineer- - 
ing, and executive efficiency. . 


48 PANAMA 


GENERAL CANAL INFORMATION 


The Panama Railroad is 47.5 miles long, is modern in 
every respect, including ninety-pound rails, automatic sig- 
nals and oil-burning locomotives. ‘There are three trains 
daily each way, taking two hours for the trip. A first-class 
fare is five cents a mile. 

More and more, Panama is becoming a repair and supply 
centre. Its coaling stations contain a maximum of 700,000 
tons of coal, with facilities for loading 500 tons an hour, 
while 1,440,000 barrels of oil can be stored in its great 
tanks. 

The Canal tariff for Jaden freight ships is $1.20 per net 
ton; for others it is 72 cents. A “net” ton is one hundred 
cubic feet. In 1924 the tolls on each ship averaged $4,600. 

During the ten years ending July 1, 1924, 25,704 com- 
mercial vessels have passed through the Canal, carrying 
about 43,000,000 tons of cargo, the total tolls paid amount- 
ing to $100,840,309, of which $24,290,963 was received 
during the year ending July 1, 1924,—a clear profit above 
maintenance of about $17,209,572, which is nearly five per 
cent. on the entire investment of the Government. ‘The 
Panama railway earned $1,044,887 additionally. 

The entire cost of the Canal was $373,000,000, including 
$40,000,000 paid to the French Canal Company. It was 
opened on August 15, 1914, when the S. S. Ancon, of 9,000 
tons, passed through, although it has since been blocked by 
slides at various times aggregating seven months. In 1917, 
forty-one vessels made the transit, while in 1924 there were 
5,230, an increase Over 1923 of 31.8 per cent. in number 
of ships and 38.7 per cent. in tolls. “Twenty-three flags 
were represented, 62 per cent. being America and 22 per 
cent. British. 

The question of a second canal is already receiving atten- 
tion in official circles because the present indication is that 
the Panama Canal will not likely be large enough by 1962 
to handle the necessary traffic. A second system of two 


CANAL INFORMATION 49 


locks parallel to the two locks which are now in operation 
can be constructed, but no additional locks are possible be- 
cause of the fact that the water supply would not be suff- 
cient. By the Bryan-Chamorro treaty, the United States 
has already paid $3,000,000 for the right to construct a canal 
by way of the San Juan River, Lake Nicaragua and the 
Gulf of Ponseca. It would probably cost over a billion 
dollars, but before 1962, the present Canal is sure to earn 
twice this.sum. 

Bunau-Varilla, the well-known canal authority, believes 
that the annual tonnage will be 100,000,000 tons by 1944, 
and recommends that a sea-level canal be built at Panama, 
which would not interfere with the operation of the present 
Canal. It would require the removal of five times as much 
material, be 1,000 feet wide (instead of 110) and would 
cost a billion dollars. 

The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850 and the Hay- 
Pauncefote Treaty of 1901 both designated absolute neu- 
trality, and the United States law, which provided for the 
exemption of the payment of tolls by United States coast- 
wise shipping, was so clearly a violation of these Treaty 
terms, that good faith and national self-respect forced the 
abrogation of the law, and it was repealed June 15, 1914. 


Pees THE CANAL 


The trip by steamer through the Canal is one of constant 
charm and surprise. ‘The beautiful shores with their luxu- 
riant tropical verdure reveal a constantly changing pano-. 
rama of beauty. ‘The shores of Miraflores Lake especially 
are bewitchingly lovely, and the passage through the Gail- 
lard Cut with its rugged sides, and abrupt cliffs at close 
range, through which man has cut his way, is most impres- 
sive. Standing on the deck and watching the operations of 
the various locks as the steamer rises from the Atlantic level 
to the Gatun Lake, and then descending again to the level 
of the Pacific, is a novel and thrilling experience. The | 
whole trip is a growing crescendo. 


50 PANAMA 
BALBOA 


The steamer reaches the dock at Balboa, the suburb of 
Panama on United States soil, where the Canal enters the 
Pacific. ‘This was formerly known as La Boca, but was 
renamed by the Americans in order to give honour to the 
great discoverer. Here automobiles are usually waiting to 
give Cruise passengers a ride through the picturesque region 
around the Pacific port. Such a ride passes by the Panama 
Canal Administration buildings, the residences of the Canal 
officials, the Army headquarters and the charming Ancon 
Hospital grounds, and climbs Balboa Heights. A superb 
panoramic view, including the Pedro Miguel and Mira- 
flores Locks, may be seen from the summit. ‘These moun- 
tain-top views, that overlook the whole Canal valley and the 
vast stretches of the Pacific, are most inspiring. From the 
entrance door of the Ancon Hospital, both the Atlantic and 
the Pacific oceans may be seen. 

A drive through Panama City, passing the former exposi- 
tion grounds to the bull-ring, bathing-beach, and residential 
sections, gives a good idea of the quaint and picturesque 
characteristics of the town. Such a ride usually includes 
the shopping district and the ride over the Causeway to the 
fortified Island. 

Balboa is a beautiful little city, charmingly situated and 
artistically laid out with perfect driveways and broad park- © 
like squares. ‘The homes of officials are built of concrete, 
in a modern style of architecture. Here are also dry docks, 
repair shops and naval storehouses. 

The Administration Building, also of concrete, is con- 
spicuously placed on the top of a hill, being approached by 
three broad flights of stairs in front, and by an encircling 
motor road in the rear. In this building many things of 
historic interest have been preserved, including old models 
and pieces of machinery and relics of de Lesseps’ time, form- 
ing the nucleus of a museum. Here also are kept on file 
the personal records, constantly open for the inspection of 





THE CATHEDRAL OF PANAMA 





BALBOA 51 


the public, of all employés, giving age, nationality, place of 
birth, and previous employment. . 


Sari OF PANAMA 


Panama, with a population of 66,851, is the Capital of 
the Republic of Panama, and was first built by Fernandez 
de Cordova after the destruction of Old Panama, which 
was located four or five miles to the west, and which had 
been destroyed by Henry Morgan, the buccaneer, in 1671. 

It lies at the base of Ancon Hill (which is 560 feet 
high), at the summit of which is the cone of an extinct 
volcano. The City has been improved in recent years, some. 
of the $10,000,000 paid to the Republic having been used 
to erect several fine public buildings. “The United States 
controls all sanitation and water supply, although these sys- 
tems are conducted at the expense of the Panama City Govy- 
ernment. ‘The new Panama site is much more favourably 
situated for shipping than was the old. 

The narrow streets with their houses of two or three 
stories with red-tiled roofs and peopled balconies make a 
striking picture. 

The main street is the Avenida Central, which makes 
a circular detour and leads to the Malecén or sea wall. 
Most of the shops in the Avenida Central are in the hands 
of Chinamen. ‘They began coming in such large numbers 
that those arriving after 1904 have been charged a $250 
head tax. Apparently, they pay this cheerfully for the 
privilege of doing business in Panama City. 

The Cathedral was built by a negro who became a 
Bishop of Panama, whose father was a charcoal burner. 
It was financed by this good Bishop and took eighty-eight 
years to complete. It is a rather dingy building with two 
towers encased in mother-of-pearl. Opposite the Cathedral 
are the Bishop’s Palace and the old Government Palace. 

The Lottery is legal in Panama and there is one con- - 
ducted under the auspices of the Roman Catholic Church, 


a PANAMA 


the proceeds of which are divided among three charities. 
The drawings take place each Sunday morning at the corner 
of the Bishop’s Palace on the Cathedral Plaza. Vendors of 
these lottery tickets are to be met everywhere along the 
streets and so well is the lottery patronised that prizes run 
as high as several thousand dollars. 

Other churches are the San Felipe Neri, whose arch goes 
back to 1688; the San Francisco, completed 1740, and the 
Santa Ana, that has an altar service of hammered silver. 

The City Hall or Palacio Municipal, the Teatro Nacional, 
an unusually handsome structure, and a fine Union Club, 
where the Prince of Wales was recently given a great recep- 
tion, are important centres of interest. The Instituto 
Nacional, the University of Panama, was opened in 1911, 
and has.a group of buildings at the base of Ancon Hill. 

The Malecon, or sea wall, is the fashionable promenade. 
From here there is a good view over the islands in Panama 
Bay, which have been strongly fortified by the United States. 
One of these guns, according to report, will throw a shell 
weighing twenty-four hundred pounds a distance of seventeen 
miles, and another has a reach of thirty miles. 

There is a picturesque scene on the beach under the walls 
of the City where boats laden with meats, vegetables, fish 
and fruits from along the coast run in at high tide and wait 
until the tide ebbs, after which they can unload on the beach 
and sell their produce without the extra expense of hand- - 
ling it. 

In the early days of Spanish ownership it was decided to 
protect the city against invasion by building this sea wall, 
but the project proved so costly to Spain, and was so long 
in building that the Spanish King is said to have facetiously 
inquired if he would not soon be able to see the wall from 
Madrid. 

On Taboga Island, situated in the Bay of Panama and 
easily reached by launch from Panama City, is a Sana- 
tarium which was originally built by the French as a hos- 
pital and which is now utilised by the Canal Commission 


Pere Ol PANAMA 53 


for convalescing government workers. ‘The Island is also 
used as a pleasure resort for employés on vacation, offering 
very moderate hotel rates, a fine bathing-beach and a variety 
of amusements, and hence is very popular. Government 
employés are each allotted certain vacation days in each 
month which are cumulative up to a specified number. ‘This 
enables them to take a long rest at times, if they so desire. 


OLD PANAMA 


The ruins of old Panama, four or five miles away, make 
an interesting objective for a drive. It was the oldest city 
of European origin in America and was once supposed to 
be the most impregnable fortress in the Western Hemi- 
sphere, but it is now only a heap of ancient ruins, having 
been sacked and destroyed in 1671 by the famous adventurer, 
Henry Morgan. He attacked with twelve hundred men, 
and a fierce battle ensued in which six hundred Panama sol- 
diers were killed, the victorious ‘““Morganites”’ immediately 
besieging the city and, after three hours’ conflict, taking 
possession of the supposed stronghold. It was said to have 
had eight monasteries and two handsome churches enriched 
with gold and silver paraphernalia, together with fine paint- 
ings and other treasures. “The city contained two thousand 
houses built of cedar. Record has it that Morgan carried 
away its spoils, using one hundred and seventy-five beasts 
of burden laden with Spanish treasures, 


Paes TOL RAVELLCERS 


Hotels. Ihe Hotel Washington, in Colon, with eighty- 
eight rooms, and the Tivoli Hotel, in Ancon, with two hun- 
dred rooms, are both operated by the United States Gov- 
ernment and are extremely comfortable, and the charges are 
quite reasonable. ‘The drinking water is pure. Panama is 
becoming a favourite winter resort because of its excellent - 
hotels and its many attractions. 


54 | PANAMA 


Conveyances. Automobiles and carriages are on the 
system of zones, costing each passenger fifteen cents 
within one zone, and fifteen cents additional for each 
extra zone. 

Money. Money is either ‘‘gold”—that is, regular 
United States currency, or “silver,’’ based on the peso of 
Panama, and worth half a dollar. It is divided into one 
hundred cents. 

Weather. ‘The weather is continually tropical summer, 
and although the heat is not excessive, the humidity is very 
trying. ‘The highest official temperature recorded is 98° F., 
the lowest, 59° F. 

Purchases. Panama hats are the conspicuous article 
made locally, for which very reasonable prices are charged. 
Bargaining is recommended, even at “one price’ shops. 
There are other kinds of native handiwork, gay striped bags, 
made of fine hemp, which can be secured at modest rates, 
but all articles that are not of native manufacture cost more 
in Panama than in the United States. It should be remem- 
bered that all wood and ivory carving, laces, embroideries, 
silks, jewellery, ornaments and bric-a-brac can be bought at 
very much lower rates in Japan and China, than in Panama 
or elsewhere in Round-the-World travel. 

Social Life. The presence of Army and Navy officers, 
as well as of Canal officials, makes for a very active social 
life, with every modern sport, not even omitting bull fights 
(on the Republic of Panama territory), in full blast. There 
are some high class clubs, conspicuously the Union Club, 
designated by those who are not fortunate enough to be 
members as the “Onion Club.” 

Churches. While Panama is mainly Catholic, the major- 
ity of Americans within the Zone are Protestants, and various 
denominations are represented. 

In Panama, as in the Philippines and elsewhere in the 
American Army, too great a social distinction is made be- 
tween the army officers and the men in the ranks. The latter 
have little or no entrée into even modest American homes, 


Pere 2CrRlLG. OCEAN. 555 


and being deprived of the pleasures and restraints of the 
American home life, the soldiers too often betake themselves 
to the cafés and dance halls, and find their association with 
the uncultured and sometimes vicious natives. 


meer ACIFICV’OCEAN 


Leaving the port at Panama one enters the great Pacific 
Ocean, containing 68,634,000 square miles with an average 
depth of 12,780 feet, which is ten thousand miles at its wid- 
est and nine thousand miles extreme distance from north 
to south. It contains over twenty-five hundred islands large 
enough to be named and inhabited. It represents the un- 
changing elements of nature quite as much as do the ever- 
lasting mountains. 

The Pacific has steep-sloped shores throughout, and con- 
tains such an illimitable expanse that a shipwrecked sailor 
might go many weeks without seeing a ship or being driven 
upon an island. One can see both the North Star and 
the Southern Cross near its equatorial belt. There is an 
immensity which commands admiration and awe and is sug- 
gestive of eternity. “These are the waters that have fur- 
nished the tales of perilous shipwrecks on cannibal islands, 
the “Mysterious Island” of Jules Verne, the Jack London 
“Sea Wolf” tales, and the ‘Treasure Island” of Robert 
Louis Stevenson. 

The Pacific is also the centre of most of the great earth- 
quake movements. ‘The earthquake belt extends along 
nearly the whole of the South American and Central Amer- 
ican coast on its Pacific side, a part of the California coast, 
and several sections in Alaska, together with the entire 
Aleutian Islands, the whole of the Japanese islands, the 
Philippines, and large parts of the South Sea islands, ex- 
tending into the Indian Ocean to the Bay of Bengal, as far 
as Calcutta, which in September, 1923, had some severe 
shocks. . 

Outside of this great Pacific earthquake belt, encircling 


56 PANAMA 


the Pacific Ocean, there are comparatively few disturbed 
regions, the others being mostly in the Mediterranean, in- 
cluding Asia Minor, Italy and southern Spain. 

Spain, in the time of Balboa, owned all the American 
side of the Pacific, as well as the Philippine Islands on the 
Asiatic, but now has no colonial possessions. 


SUPPLEMENTARY PAU 
FIGURES 


The Republic of Panama asserted its independence of the 
Republic of Colombia November 3, 1903, and this de facto 
Government was recognised by the United States ten days 
later, and soon thereafter by the other Powers. On April 6, 
1914, Colombia signed the Treaty of Bogota, agreeing to 
recognise the independence of Panama on the basis of re- 
ceiving $25,000,000 from the United States. “This was rati- 
fied by the United States Senate on April 20, 1921, and by 
the Colombian Congress December 24, 1921. 

The President of the Republic of Panama is elected by 
direct vote every four years and cannot succeed himself. 
‘There are three vice-presidents and a cabinet of five min- 
isters. A Chamber of Deputies, having thirty-three mem- 
bers, meets bi-annually. 

A dispute with Costa Rica about boundaries was sub- 
mitted to the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the 
United States as arbiter, who gave a decision in 1914, but 
Panama refused to accept the verdict. “The United States 
insisted on this ruling, and in September, 1921, the disputed 
region was occupied by Costa Rica, although Panama does 
not recognise the occupation. 

On November 18, 1903, a treaty was enacted between the 
United States and the new Republic of Panama, giving the 
United States the right to construct a Canal, together with 
a lease of the land five miles on either side, the United 
States Government having exclusive control in this section 


ete NIGARY FACTS $7 


for police, judicial and sanitary purposes. Other territory 
was later ceded for possible subsidiary canals and for the 
defence of the Canal itself, including the coast line and the 
Islands on Panama Bay. While the towns of Panama and 
Colon are under the authority of the Republic of Panama, 
the United States controls their harbours, as well as their 
sanitation and quarantine. “The United States paid Panama 
$10,000,000 in cash, and, in addition, pays $250,000 an- 
nually (beginning with 1912), besides buying the individual 
holdings of land from their respective owners. 

The extreme length of the Republic of Panama, which is 
now a country in Central America (and not, as formerly, a 
part of South America), is 480 miles, and the breadth about 
110 miles, with an area of 32,380 square miles. “The popu- 
lation (1920), excluding the Canal Zone, is 446,098, or 
about twelve to the square mile. “There is a mixed Spanish, 
Indian, and Negro population, including 3,500 Chinese, only 
ten to fifteen per cent. being white. ‘The city of Panama 
has a population of 66,851 (1920); Colon, 31,230. The 
prevailing religion is Roman Catholic, although the Prot- 
estant Church predominates in the Canal Zone. ‘There are 
384 public schools, with 43,215 children, school attendance 
being obligatory for children from seven to fifteen years of 
age. [here is a National University whose buildings cost 
$1,250,000. ‘The revenues (1924) are $9,561,762, and 
expenditures $7,095,114. “The United States can import all 
Canal materials free of duty. There is no Army or Navy. 
The Panama railroad, 47.61 miles long, connecting Colon 
and Panama, cost $8,866,392, and belongs to the United 
States Government. The United Fruit Company, of the 
United States, operates 140 miles of its own railroad. 

‘Two mountain ranges traverse the country, with fertile 
valleys lying between. The soil is of great fertility,— 
bananas, coffee, cacao, rubber, cocoanuts, sugar and tobacco, 
being the principal products. Hides, tortoise-shell, mother- 
of-pearl and dye woods are also exported. 

The standard ‘unit of money is the peso, equivalent to 


58 PANAMA 


fifty cents American, each peso being divided into 100 cents. 
Part of the $10,000,000 paid by the United States was used 
in establishing a real estate loan bank, and $6,000,000 has 
been invested in the United States. 


RECENT BIBLIOGRAPHY 


In Quest of El Dorado, 8. Graham. ’23, Appleton. 

Panama, Past and Present, A. H. Verrill. ’21, Dodd-Mead. 

Sailing South, P.S. Marden. ’21, Houghton. 

Prowling About Panama, G. A. Miller. ’19, Abingdon 
Press. 

Guide to the West Indies, F. A. Ober. ’20, Dodd-Mead. 

Great Adventure of Panama, P. Bunau-Varilla.  ’20, 
Doubleday. 

The Panama Plot, A. B. Reeve. Harper. 

Panama Canal, H. C. Lodge. Government Printing Press. 

Panama, the Canal, the Country and the People, Albert 
Edwards. 711, Macmillan. 

The Panama Canal and Its Makers, Vaughn Cornish. 
’o9, I. Fisher Unwin. 

Panama and the Canal, W. J. Abbot. ’14, Dodd. 

Panama, A. Bullard. ’14, Macmillan. 

Panama, C. H. A. Forbes-Lindsay. ’12, Page. 

Panama and What It Means, J. F. Fraser. 713, Funk. 

Panama, Past and Present, F. Bishop. ’16, Century. 

Panama Canal, R. E. Bakenhus. ’14, Wiley. 

Panama Gateway, J. B. Bishop. ’15, Scribner. 

Panama, E. A. Browne. 713, Macmillan. 

Panama, P. Bunan-Varilla. °14, McBride. 


HAWATI 


“The loveliest fleet of islands that lies anchored in any ocean.” 
—Mark Twain. 


HE Hawaiian Islands, sometimes spoken of as the 

“Paradise of the Pacific,” and termed by Captain 

Cook, “The Rainbow Isles,” consist of eight 
habitable islands with a total area of 6,449 square miles. 
The first Malays or Polynesians probably landed at these 
islands about 500 a.p. ‘They may have drifted across the 
ocean from the South Sea Islands by way of Tahiti, perhaps 
going from one group of islands to the next. How they 
could have crossed these great stretches of thousands of 
miles in small open boats and survived, will remain a mys- 
tery. Some people, however, say that Hawaii was a part 
of a great Pacific continent, the rest having sunk like the 
Atlantis Island of old into the midst of the sea. It is evi- 
dent, however, that the Islands are entirely of volcanic 
origin, thrust up out of the bottom of the ocean,—a veritable 
group of great land areas in the making. Scientists say 
that this action has consumed twenty thousand years, but 
this seems rather a low estimate. 

These early Hawaiians had some of the religious customs 
of the Jews of ancient Palestine, as for instance, temples of 
refuge, circumcision, purifications, and much the same 
method for the burial of the dead. ‘This has given rise in 
some quarters to the belief that they are the descendants of 
those who knew the Jewish religion, perhaps harking back 
to the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel. Others seem to find 
evidence of Persian ancestry, but, as a whole, they seem 
rather to be of Malay origin. 

‘Spanish Visitors. It seems almost certain that these 
Islands were discovered by the Spaniards, and that a navi- 
gator by the name of Don Juan Gaetano landed here in 
1555 A.D. It also seems probable that in view of the fact 

, 59 


60 HAWAII 


that Spain dominated the Pacific Ocean in the sixteenth and 
seventeenth centuries, that Captain Cook possessed a chart 
of the ocean prepared for Spanish navigators, in which these 
Islands were indicated. At any rate, there is evidence that 
people of light complexion and even of fair hair settled 
there about this time and helped to give the lighter colour 
and sometimes reddish hair, which were noticeable even in 
Captain Cook’s time in some of the Hawaiians. 

Captain Cook. When Captain Cook in 1778 on his 
third “Round the World” voyage in his ship Discovery 
found the “Sandwich” islands, as he called them (a name 
now obsolete), he was received by a very hospitable people. 
He and other foreigners: who followed brought some curses 
as well as blessings to the inhabitants, largely because they 
introduced sex diseases and the evils of drink among these 
simple-minded natives. Captain Cook estimated that there 
were 432,000 natives in the Islands when he arrived (a 
grossly exaggerated number), but the census of 1832 showed 
only 130,000, and at present there are less than 22,000 
natives of unmixed Hawaiian race. 

Although at first worshipped as a god, and under the pro- 
tection of the priests, Captain Cook, on account of his high- 
handed methods, and the heavy levies he made on the people, 
and because his brutal and boisterous sailors abused the hos- — 
pitality of the natives, was pierced by a spear and killed a 
year after his arrival, whereupon his sailors withdrew to 
their ship. He and his crew went on the assumption that 
no laws of God or man were valid west of Cape Horn. The 
story that his body was eaten has no warrant whatever, as 
there is nothing to show that the Hawaiians had cannibalis- 
tic habits. 


LATER His" 


King Kamehameha I. While for centuries these 
Islands were the scene of constant warring feuds between 
the various kings and chiefs, they were finally unified under 


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THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 


The group lies between 18 deg. 54 min and 22 deg 14 min north, 154 deg 43 min and 
160 deg. 13 min, west. Eight islands are inhabited. 

HAWAII is the largest, 75 by 90 miles. Area 4015 square miles On it are the highest 
mountains in the Pacific, two peaks reaching an altitude of more than 13,000 feet Hilo, the 
chief city, is second in population in the territory 

MAUI contains 728 square miles. Haleakala is a mountain of more than 10,000 feet. . 

OAHU, with Honolulu, principal city and capital, 2180 miles west of San Francisco, con- 
tains 598 square miles. Pearl Harbor naval station is located here 

KAUAT, ‘‘The Garden Isle.’’ is rated the oldest island in the group 
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Peek UTS TORY 61 


King Kamehameha I (born 1737), by his victories over all 
antagonists. He was a man of extraordinary personality 
and leadership and proved himself not only a warrior, but 
a law giver and ruler and a man of ideals for his nation. 

Kamehameha I was called the Napoleon of the Pacific, 
and yet he was so ignorant that he deemed the following 
incident sheer magic. An Englishman wrote a message on 
a paper requesting a handkerchief and sent it to the 
ship in the harbour. When the handkerchief was 
actually brought, the King could not understand any con- 
nection between the paper and the handkerchief. ‘This, 
of course, was before the Hawaiian language was put into 
writing. 

The first of the Christian rulers was Queen Kaahumanu, 
the widow of Kamehameha I, and the Queen Regent during 
the reign of Kamehameha II, who showed himself to be 
incapable and vicious. 

Kamehameha III. King Kamehameha III proved to 
have Christian ideals above those of any other Hawaiian 
ruler. He gave two-thirds of all his possessions to the 
people, and tried to bring about a land reform by which 
every householder should own some land. He drew up a 
Magna Charta, or Bill of Rights, in 1839, and a Consti- 
tution in 1840, which gave the people the power to elect 
representatives for the Parliament which he instituted, and 
he appointed judiciary departments with district, circuit and 
supreme courts. 

King Kamehameha III tried to learn to read under the 
tutelage of the missionaries, but he soon wearied of it, and 
yet compelled his family to learn, even making a rule that 
no man could marry who could not read. While he was the 
most broadminded and wise of all the Hawaiian Kings, he 
was in his later years given to intemperance. 

Evidently the rule of King Kamehameha III was gentle 
and considerate. ‘The story goes that the prisoners in the 
Oahu prison in his time were permitted to go out and do 
household work during the day, as there was a great demand 


62 HAWAII 


for domestic servants. Someone asked the warden, “Sup- 
pose a prisoner fails to come back, what do you do?” “We 
lock him out,” was the triumphant reply. 

The most important work which the early missionaries 
did was to emphasise education, and the King appointed the 
Rev. R. B. Armstrong, D.D., the father of the late General 
Samuel C. Armstrong, of Hampton Institute, Virginia, as 
the Minister of Education. General Armstrong learned 
some of his revolutionary methods of manual and industrial 
training for backward races from his father in Hawaii. In 
the Island of Maui, where General Armstrong was born, 
his father had established this manual work in the Lahaina 
Luna Seminary, founded in 1831. : 

English Occupancy. In 1843 when a Mr. Simpson 
was Acting Consul of Great Britain at Honolulu, he forced 
the cession of Hawaii to Great Britain on his own responsi- 
bility, having notified Admiral Thomas, in charge of the 
Pacific fleet, to send a warship to Hawaii because British 
lives were in danger. When the warship arrived, the King 
immediately surrendered. ‘The Government of Great Brit- 
ain, however, on reviewing the case, sent this message: “Her 
Majesty (Queen Victoria) sincerely desires King Kame- 
hameha III to be treated as an independent sovereign, leay- 
ing the administration of justice in his own hands,” after 
which the British flag came down and the Hawaiian flag 
was restored. “The Hawaiian flag consisted of eight alter- 
nate stripes of red, white and blue, each representing one of 
the eight inhabited islands, with an English Jack in the 
upper left hand corner. In 1849, France made an attempt 
to conquer and occupy Hawaii, but failed. 

The Provisional Republic. After several other inter- 
vening reigns and two years of rule under Queen Liliuo- 
kalani, the Hawaiians, with the assistance of Americans, 
abolished the monarchy in January, 1893 and a provisional 
government was established. ‘This was precipitated by the 
fact that Queen Liliuokalani tried to set aside the Constitu- 
tion so as to get complete autocratic control of the Govern- 


ANNEXATION 63 


ment. This act was not only unpopular with American 
business men, but also with the Hawaiian people. 

Liliuokalani made an attempt to regain her throne in 
1895, her friends having planned a revolution, but the 
effort failed completely. She appealed to the United States 
to restore her throne and crown lands, but nothing was 
done. In the last years of her life she regained her popu- 
larity because of her genial and democratic attitude. 

The Provisional Government took the side of the United 
States in the American war with Spain, and, as a military 
necessity because Hawaii was the “Crossroads of the Pa- 
cific,’ the United States Congress passed a resolution of 
annexation, 


THE AMERICAN ADMINIGS- 
RAL TON 


The Senate of the Provisional Government of Hawaii, 
on September 8, 1897, unanimously ratified the Treaty of 
Annexation, and on August 12, 1898, President S. B. Dole 
ceded the jurisdiction and property of the Hawaiian Re- 
public to the United States. It was an impressive occasion, 
opened by prayer. The address of acceptance was made by 
United States Minister Sewell, followed by the formal lower- 
ing of the Hawaiian flag, and the raising of the Star Span- 
gled Banner. 

Queen Liliuokalani lived and (in November. 1917) died 
in Washington Place, a mansion which has since been bought 
and made the residence of the Governor, who has his office 
in what was the stately bed chamber of royalty. 

The last titular descendant of the Hawaiian monarchy 
was Prince Kalanianaole, called the ‘‘Prince of the People,” 
who was Hawaii’s Delegate to the United States Congress 
for twenty years and died January, 1922. ‘This is the 
finale of Hawaiian royalty. 

When the present Prince of Wales visited Hawaii in 1920 
he was received with great acclaim. 


64 } HAWAII 


HAWAIIAN DEFENCES 


The United States Government has taken great precau- 
tions to make Hawaii an impregnable Naval Station. 

Pearl Harbour, seven miles from Honolulu, was opened 
in June, 1918, having been supposedly made invincible with 
very complete fortifications. Since Hawaii is called the 
“Key to the Pacific,’ Pearl Harbour and other defences 
should constitute a great central stronghold in protecting not 
only Hawaii, but our whole western coast. ‘This harbour 
was once very shallow, but now its coral bottom has been 
dredged and excavated. The recent manceuvres of the United 
States fleet of 127 vessels in May, 1925, revealed many 
weaknesses. “The harbour is too shallow for the largest ves- 
sels. There-is a shortage of 16-inch guns, of airplanes and 
of general defensive construction and equipment. Naval 
experts agree that safety requires improved defences, which 
will cost about $32,000,000. An immense dry dock that 
scarcely has an equal anywhere, 1,039 feet in‘length, and 
148 feet wide, has been opened. It is also a Naval Station, 
the headquarters for naval forces and a station for coal and 
oil supplies, and has extensive wireless, as well as cable, 
communications. 

Diamond Head, 761 feet high, is a fortress just at the 
entrance to Honolulu, and is unusual in that its sloping 
terraces, as well as its crest, which is an extinct crater, are 
heavily fortified. It is known as Fort Ruger. 

There is a fortress at Waikiki Beach called Fort de 
Russey with one 14-inch gun and other modern defences. 

The Honolulu harbour at its entrance has Fort Arm- 
strong on the western end. 

Schofield Barracks are seven miles from Honolulu, and 
constitute the strongest military post in Hawaii, having 
quarters for cavalry, artillery, and infantry, with a total of 
15,000 soldiers, mostly natives. 

Fort Shafter is three miles from Honolulu, and is the 
headquarters for the infantry, engineering and signal corps. 


HAWAIIAN PROBLEMS 65 


In August, 1923, the United States Navy Department 
approved a twenty year program appropriating a total dur- 
ing this period of $42,528,000 for Honolulu defences. 


Se PPE OF Pk 


There is a very mixed population of 307,109 (1925) in 
Hawaii, with 21,271 of native stock, there being, in 1925, 
125,368 Japanese (or 42 per cent. of the whole), 34,272 
Americans, British, Germans, etc., 26,791 Portuguese, 
22,000 Chinese, and 5,000 Koreans. ‘The Koreans are good 
labourers, but very exclusive and extremely bitter against 
the Japanese. “The Portuguese are of small physique, but 
are excellent labourers and are thrifty and progressive. ‘The 
Porto Ricans and the Filipinos (there being 39,608 of the 
latter) have been the least satisfactory class of labourers. 
The children of all these races are well behaved. Only 
seven per cent. of the population is American. 

The Japanese Problem. ‘The Japanese were not con- 
sidered a menace until Hawaii was made a territory, but 
the fact that all children of the large Japanese families be- 
come citizens automatically at the age of twenty-one makes 
the future control of Hawaii by its Japanese citizens prac- 
tically certain. The Japanese are mentally a superior race, 
ranking with the Anglo-Saxon, but they have a race pride 
and a national loyalty that make it impossible to amalga- 
mate them into the body politic. 

At the present ratio of increase, however, the Japanese 
will absolutely control the electorate before the year 1940. 
This makes a political crisis that will become increasingly 
disturbing, as it will be a serious menace to have a part of 
the United States controlled by an electorate of an alien race. 
In July, 1921, the House Immigration Committee reported 
that the industries of Hawaii must inevitably pass into the 
hands of the Japanese under present conditions, and that 
such a transfer of economic control in the western outpost 
of America would practically destroy American influence ?n 


66 HAWAII 


Hawaii. The Japanese do not as a rule give up allegiance 
to Japan, even when by birth they become American citizens. 
In case of war, they would favor Japan. Some whites in 
Hawaii do not favor statehood because it might give Hawaii 
a Japanese governor. Of course, Japanese citizens in 
Hawaii can freely enter and live in the United States, as 
they are United States citizens. Perhaps the surest way to 
avoid “Japanisation” would be to withhold citizenship from 
Hawaiian-born Japanese beyond a certain percentage. 

The best of the Orientals, taken as a whole, and the ones 
most popular with the Americans, are the Chinese, who are 
of a superior type mentally, physically, and morally. ‘They, 
however, represent the small shop-keeping and rice-field 
working class. 

Hawaiian Characteristics. ‘The native Hawaiians are 
hospitable, cheerful, loyal, and law-abiding, although light- 
hearted and rather irresponsible. “They are born fishermen 
and seamen and expert swimmers, excelling also in the sports 
of boxing, wrestling, bowling and running. Music with 
them is a passion. “They are well educated and are born 
orators. “They tend to extreme corpulency after middle life, 
owing largely to their fondness for “poi,” which is a paste 
slightly fermented, made of the root of the taro (or kalo) 
plant (which is a tuber, raised in flooded patches of soil), 
and tastes like ‘oatmeal mixed with sour apple sauce.” In 
the Bishop Museum there is a portrait of Princess Ruth, 
who weighed 300 pounds, and many of the Hawaiians then 
and now, especially the women, seem to be trying to keep 
up to that royal standard. Although the majority of the 
people of the highest social and business standing are pure 
Caucasians, there is a mixture of race among some of the 
best people. 

The Hawaiians have been very susceptible to the diseases 
of the white man, which were unknown to the natives before 
his advent. Smallpox, scarlet fever, and diphtheria have 
taken a large toll in the earlier days, and measles, which 
we consider a mild children’s disease, has proved very fatal. 


CHRISTIAN INFLUENCES 67 


The same thing has been true on many islands of the Pacific 
and also among the Alaskan Indians. H.G. Wells, in one 
of his earlier fanciful tales, “The War of the Worlds,” 
pictures the army from Mars, after apparently sweeping 
everything before them in victorious conquest, suddenly suc- 
cumbing to the germs of earth-born diseases, to which they 
were not immune. 


Mosk y WORK IN “HAWATI 


In October, 1819, Rev. Asa Thurston and Rev. Hiram 
Bingham, witn their wives, together with some lay workers, 
started from New England in a sailing vessel,—the brig 
‘Thaddeus,—and after 157 days’ voyage around Cape Horn, 
landed at the Island of Hawaii. Everything seemed to have 
been providentially prepared for them. Kamehameha I had 
died less than a year before, and although he had associated 
with some English-speaking people and knew somewhat of 
the Christian religion, he himself never embraced Chris- 
tianity. 

His successor, Kamehameha II, however, influenced by 
Queen Kaahumanu, the widow of Kamehameha I, who was 
associated with him as Queen Regent, immediately abolished 
the Hawaiian religion and worship, the high priest Hewa- 
hewa himself being the first to apply the torch to the tem- 
ples and idols. This was the end of the cruel “tabu” (often 
spelled ‘‘taboo”) which had been used by the priests as such 
a powerful means of controlling the people. “Tabu at the 
will of these religious tyrants meant death. Death, if a 
man broke a religious rule. Death, to eat certain kinds of 
food. Death, if a man or woman took food first before a 
priest had partaken of it. Death, for a woman to use fire 
kindled by a man. Death, if a woman ate the same food 
with a man,—together with many other similar horrible 
rules. ‘This made conditions ripe for the bringing in of the 
Christian religion. 

The crushing of the powers of the priesthood and the 


Be ele HAWAII 


abolishing of the tabu led to a civil war and the battle of 
Kona, but the despotic priestly power soon was absolutely 
destroyed. 

Some Hawaiian Queens. Queen Keopuolani, the older 
wife of Kamehameha I, was the first convert of the early 
missionaries. (Queen Kaahumanu, the younger wife, at first 
was very cold and haughty but later became a most loyal 
convert and was the most remarkable among all the Ha- 
Waiian queens. She made extensive tours through the 
Islands with the missionaries, trying to persuade the people 
to adopt the new religion. 

The Christian Queen Kapiolani, the Hawaiian “Joan of 
Arc,” visited the crater of Kilauea in December, 1824, for 
the express purpose of overthrowing the superstitious faith 
of the people in the crater goddess, “Pele.” Although no 
native previously had ever dared even to come near to the 
mouth of the crater, she ate of the berries growing on the 
edge, which were supposed to be for the use of the goddess 
only, and actually descended to the brink of the lake of 
molten lava and uttered an open defiance to the goddess of 
terror. ‘This had a powerful influence in turning the people 
away from their superstitions. 

The Success of Christianity. Within ten years after 
the arrival of the missionaries, all the inhabitants were nomi- 
nally converted to Christianity, and in the first few decades 
thereafter the moral and religious standards were well sus- 
tained. ‘The people have always been very loyal to their 
missionaries. and appreciative of their good work. Only 
once was a missionary endangered, and that was a woman 
who was unsuccessfully attacked. “The King ordered her 
assailant to be instantly executed, but the intercession of 
the missionaries saved the wretch from this fate. 

There was no written or printed language before the 
missionaries came, but they soon put the Bible and other 
literature into print in the vernacular. ‘The native language 
being very simple in structure, having only twelve letters 
in its alphabet, they had but a limited vocabulary, which 


MISSIONARY WORK 69 


has since been duly supplemented by English words in the 
common patois. English at the present time is the current 
language. 

‘There can be no question about the immense value of 
American missions in the social, moral and intellectual trans- 
formation in these Islands. Even though the native Ha- 
waiians do not measure up to the highest Christian ideals, 
one need only compare them with any other non-Christian 
Malay race in the Pacific to realise what a noble result has 
been achieved. 

The criticism is sometimes made that the missionaries 
took advantage of their opportunities to amass wealth. None 
of the early missionaries, however, became wealthy. It was 
only their children and children’s children who, as educated 
Americans, naturally had opportunities for developing the 
resources of the Islands, who became rich. ‘The fact that 
in so doing they helped immensely to develop the Islands 
in an agricultural, industrial, and commercial way, and at 
the same time have maintained high standards of American 
Christianity, would make this criticism rather unjust. 
Hawaii has increased its producing power more than forty- 
fold since the days of the Empire. 

If Hawaiians have not kept up to their former religious 
standard, it is not so much because they have proved them- 
selves especially weak and inconstant, although they are much 
like impressionable but forgetful children, but because they 
have been despoiled by Christian Powers, including the 
United States, who debauched the people for the sake of 
gain, by introducing rum and opium. ‘The vicious influence 
of dissolute sailors and other foreigners in their personal 
relations with the natives also helped largely to undo the 
good work of the missionaries, 


tae BIG ISLAND” 


The Hawaiian or “Big Island,” with 4,015 square miles 
(about the area of Connecticut), being larger than all other 


70 HAWAII 


Islands of this group put together, has as its tourist climax 
the most active volcano in the world, Kilauea (4,000 feet), 
resting on the shoulder of the active but quiescent Mauna 
Loa, 13,675 feet. Plans are projected to make a good auto 
road to the very top of Mauna Loa (or Great Mountain). 
There is a changing panorama with surpassing views as one 
ascends to the top of this lofty peak. 

The highest mountain, not only in Hawaii but in the 
Pacific, namely, Mauna Kea, 13,825 feet, is also on this 
Island. 

Hilo. As one enters the crescent shaped harbour (the 
name Hilo means “new moon’’), one gets the picture of its 
emerald background and its lofty mountains in the distance, 
including smoky Kilauea. ‘This Bay has also been called 
“Byron Bay” after Lord Byron (a cousin of the Lord 
Byron of literary fame), who arrived in 1824 in command 
of the frigate Blonde, bringing back the bodies of King 
Kamehameha II and his Queen, who had both succumbed 
to measles in London. 

Hilo itself has about 10,000 people, with several hotels, 
a public library, and some creditable mercantile buildings, 
and also a Boys’ School, patterned after Hampton Institute, 
Va. As the ship approaches the Hilo wharf, it is greeted 
(as at Honolulu) by music from boats filled with native 
singers as well as boats carrying boys who dive for coins. 
They do not like copper coins, as they claim that it is diff- 
cult to see them under the water. 

The Kilauea Volcano. ‘There are two methods of going 
to the top of Kilauea; one by an excellent motor road of 
thirty-one miles, straight to the crater, or by train as far 
as Glenwood and then taking a nine-mile motor car ride 
from the station. 

In both cases the way goes through extensive plantations 
of sugar cane in all stages of development, showing the 
factories, the interesting native villages, and the system of 
sluices of running water by which the cane is floated down 
to the sugar mill. 


Reeth AY OLCANO. 71 


Then as one climbs higher, passing through gorgeous 
forests containing tree ferns of gigantic size, together with 
brilliant flowers and a wealth of intense verdure, there is 
revealed a picture of tropical luxuriance that is hardly sur- 
passed anywhere. ‘This extraordinary vegetation is caused 
by the fact that there is an annual rainfall of 150 inches, 
with very few days in the year in which there is not some 
rain. Motor cars can drive to the very edge of the great 
crater, which is 7.85 miles in circumference, looking down 
four hundred feet upon the lava plateau. It contains 2,650 
acres of black or glowing lava. 

The Fire Pit inside the crater is called ‘“Halemaumau,” 
or “House of Everlasting Fire.” This inner pit is one 
thousand feet in diameter, six hundred feet deep, and covers 
about twenty acres. Looking into it, one usually can see 
the seething and sputtering lava spouting up in fountains 
and cascades, together with fiery chasms revealing a tur- 
bulent lake of fire that is one of the rare sights of the world. 
Frequently, this lava from the fire pit overflows into the 
main part of the crater, sometimes actually filling it and 
flowing half-way down the mountain. During the great 
eruption of 1855 and 1856, a stream of lava two miles wide 
flowed for fifteen months, coming within eight miles of 
Hilo. While it seems rather excitingly dangerous to the 
spectator on the brink of the crater, there has been only one 
fatality. Sometimes, however, the fire pit is so quiescent as 
to be extremely disappointing to the visitor. 

The Volcano House is within four miles of the crater by 
motor road and within two miles by trail. This trail from 
the Volcano House passes by Pele’s Bathroom, the Picture 
Frame, and the Devil’s Kitchen,—at which postal cards can 
be “toasted” by holding them over the crevices. “The motor 
road goes through a fine forest and passes several extinct 
craters. 

The Volcano House makes a charge of from $6.00 to $7.50 
per day, and has running water (which is stored in great 
tanks), electric lights, and open wood-fires. It is an attrac- 


72 ; HAWATI 


tive and well-conducted hotel, having a golf course of 
eighteen holes near the Kilauea crater, some of the steaming 
fissures being covered with wire netting to save the balls. 
The Crater Hotel is also comfortable and charges some- 
what lower rates. 

Tourists should remember that at this elevation of four 
thousand feet the nights are quite cold, so that overcoats 
and wraps are essential, especially in motoring. 


THE ISLAND OF aie 


This Island has some remarkably fine scenery, together 
with the spectacular extinct volcano, Haleakala, or ‘House 
of the Sun,” 10,000 feet high, having the largest crater in 
the world. ‘This crater is twenty-four miles in circum- 
ference and its inner walls rise twenty-five hundred feet. 
As one looks down from the rim, the floor of the crater 
seems dotted with great ant-hills, but in reality they are 
lava cones several hundred feet high. A motor road goes 
within eight miles of the summit, the-rest of the distance 
being reached on horse-back, A rest house on top gives food 
and lodging, if desired. 


THE LEPER SET PLease 


The Island of Molokai is well known because of its Leper 
Settlement, and it was here that Father Damien gave up his 
life in his ministry to the unfortunate. He has been im- 
mortalised by the famous scathing letter of Robert Louis 
Stevenson to Dr. Hyde of Australia, who had written rather 
a deprecative article about Father Damien’s personality and 
habits. Of his single-hearted devotion and self-sacrifice to 
this work among the lepers there can, however, be no uncer- 
tainty. Another worker, known as Brother Dutton, who 
came to the colony in July, 1886, is called “the Saint of 
Molokai.” He represents a very high standard of Christian 
idealism and service. 





WORKERS IN A RICE FIELD 
AN HAWAIIAN JUNGLE 





PEPER SETTLEMENT -73 


Hope for Lepers. While Father Damien went to 
Molokai and contracted leprosy in his ministry to these un- 
fortunates, and gave up his life as a martyr to the cause, 
modern medical science is doing a vastly more noble work 
in finding a means of curing these exiles. 

Chaulmoogra oil, as a cure for leprosy, has been used for 
some time in the Molokai settlement. It has, however, been 
recently modified so that it can be taken internally without 
distress and nausea, and a special preparation makes it pos- 
sible to inject it directly into the arteries of the patient. 
The tree from which the oil is extracted originally came 
from Indo-China, but it has been transplanted and is now 
grown in the Hawaiian Islands. While the medical authori- 
ties are a little slow to pronounce the oil an absolute cure, 
many patients have been discharged on parole apparently 
cured. Lepers who apply at the Kalihi Hospital in Hono- 
lulu are no longer sent to Molokai, but are treated at home. 
It begins to look as if in the next generation the leper colony 
at Molokai will be only a memory of the past. 

At present it has about eight hundred patients, living in 
very comfortable homes situated on a peninsula jutting out 
into the sea, entirely apart from the rest of the Island. This 
colony has a large tract of land which is about one-twentieth 
of the Island’s area, together with a well-equipped hospital, 
beautiful gardens and a playground for athletic games. A 
well-trained band of musicians, themselves lepers, furnish 
music on all festive occasions. The atmosphere is most 
cheerful, and the patients seem to enjoy their comfortable 
and well-ordered life. ‘They apparently are so happy that 
Jack London when he visited them said he would sooner 
live there than on the congested East Side of New York 
City. 


HONOLULU 


The Island of Oahu is the third island in size but the 
most important, both because of the presence of Honolulu, 


te 


74 HAWAII 


the capital of the Islands, a city of about 100,000 people, and 
because of the Pearl Harbour Naval Station. 

Oahu is forty-six by twenty-six miles, containing 598 
square miles. ‘The highest mountain is Kaala, which is 
4,030 feet high. The Island is largely surrounded by coral 
reefs. It has a population of 160,000, exclusive of naval 
and military forces. Oahu has 120 miles of railway, be- 
sides 667 miles of plantation railway, together with about 
15,000 motor vehicles, of which 2,500 are trucks. 

The Island of Oahu constitutes the City and County of 
Honolulu, and is entirely independent of the other Islands 
in its local government. A mayor and seven supervisors, 
elected every two years, have charge of the entire business 
of the administration. 

A Hospitable Welcome. MHonolulu’s harbour, land- 
locked on the leeward side with mountain ranges, and with 
little or no tide, is one of the safest in the world. ‘The 
welcome, which is extended to all important passenger ves- 
sels as they arrive, is something long to be remembered. 
Airplanes sometimes give a buzzing welcome overhead and 
drop a bundle of the latest newspapers on the ship’s deck. 
The Hawaiian band comes out in a launch with a greeting 
of sweet music, sometimes accompanied by a vocal chorus of 
men and with men and women soloists, all seeming to be 
imbued with the spirit of genuine welcome. Armfuls of the 
floral Jeis are on hand in abundance and as the passengers 
land a Jez is thrown like a necklace around the shoulders of 
each person. Originally, the Jez was used only for royalty. 

The so-called “Aloha” song, really the “Aloha Oe,” com- 
posed by Queen Liliuokalani, and another favourite called 
“A Song to Hawaii,” composed by an American from San 
Francisco who has never visited the Islands, are the two 
famous songs among others that usually welcome the travel- 
lers. ‘The word ‘‘aloha” means love, but expresses all the 
emotions of love, such as welcome, joy, farewell, etc. The 
Hawaiians are natural musicians, although limited to the 
so-called “Hawaiian” style of music. Within this range they 


HONOLULU 75 


play instruments and do four-part singing in a most effective 
way. A moonlight serenade by such a group of musicians 
and singers in the charming palm-crowned parks or by the 
open sea has a most bewitching effect. 

Concerts by well-known American and European artists 
are frequently given in the Hawaiian Opera House, and 
there are numerous moving picture theatres, as well as vaude- 
villes, where a rather sensual and notorious native Hawaiian 
dance, called the hula dance, is usually featured, 


SIGHTSEEING 


Waikiki Beach is four miles from Young’s Hotel, and 
is a charming seaside resort with a lovely beach for sea 
bathing, the water being of a comfortable temperature all 
the year round. Here there is also an exceptional oppor- 
tunity to see and enjoy surf-board and outrigger canoe riding. 
The surf-riding is characteristic of Hawaii and the practice 
goes back to ancient times, having originally had a religious 
significance. The word Waikiki means “shooting water.” 

A magnificent Honolulu War Memorial is being erected 
on Waikiki Beach. A part of it will consist of a huge 
natatorium three hundred and thirty feet long and one hun- 
dred and fifty feet wide, built out into the sea, the water 
thus being constantly renewed. It will have starting plat- 
forms and diving towers to be used in aquatic races, and 
many dressing rooms for men and women. ‘There will also 
be a Temple of Music with seats for 6,500 persons. Special 
provision will be made in connection with the Memorial for 
athletic and Olympic games. 

The Aquarium is in Kapiolani Park, not far from Wai- 
kiki Beach, and furnishes an exhibition of unusually bril 
liant and fantastic fish,—moon-shaped and rainbow-hued. 
There are altogether 447 species of native Hawaiian fish. 
Kapiolani Park covers one hundred and fifty acres and is 
verdant with floral beauty. It is the largest and finest of 


76 HAWAII 


all the Honolulu parks, and has enclosures for baseball 
games and polo tournaments. 

The Pali (the word means “cliff’’), six miles from Hono- 
lulu, which has a sheer drop of one thousand feet, offers the 
finest single scenic view in Honolulu. ‘The approach is by 
the road through Nuuana Valley, showing an opening be- 
tween two peaks which are 1,207 and 3,105 feet high. The 
view from Pali includes the ocean with its white surf, 
together with precipitous mountains, tinted sugar cane and 
pineapple fields, rich colourings of black lava rock and newly 
turned red earth mingling with the emerald clusters of 
trees,—all shading into the blue of the opalescent sea,— 
making altogether a very dazzling panorama. Here in April, 
1795, Kamehameha I drove the king of Oahu with thou- 
sands of his soldiers to their death over the edge of the 
precipice. The particulars are recorded on a tablet in a 
niche near by. 

The Punch Bowl near the city, 498 feet high, is the 
crater of an extinct volcano. It has many suburban homes 
on its terraces, and gives a somewhat extensive view. Here 
human sacrifices were offered in the pre-missionary days. 
The Tantalus, a higher mountain, 2,013 feet, is back of 
the Punch Bowl, and may be reached by a good road going 
nearly to the top. A short climb to the summit gives a 
surpassing vista, embracing the encircling horizon of earth 
and sky and sea. 

The Bishop Museum is on the border of the town, and 
was founded by Charles R. Bishop in 1889 in memory of 
his wife, Bernice Pauahi Bishop (the last of the line of 
Kamehameha I), who refused the throne in order to marry 
him. It is a remarkable collection of Hawaiian antiquities, 
together with objects illustrating botany, geology, zoology, 
and ethnology. Among the latter are included cloaks and 
helmets made in the most artistic fashion from the feathers 
of the mamo, a small bird now almost extinct, each bird 
contributing only a few choice feathers. It took a hundred 
years to make the famous Orange Cloak of feathers, owing 


SIGHTSEEING yi 


to the scarcity of birds, and it is priceless. Other exhibits are 
necklaces, weapons, implements, tappa cloth, relics, idols and 
Kahilis (the feathered staff, the emblem of royalty). 

The Kamehameha Schools for native Hawaiian boys 
and girls were founded by the will of Bernice Pauahi Bishop, 
who was the wealthiest land owner in the Island. ‘These 
are the best endowed and equipped schools in Honolulu, 
with industrial, manual and military features. 

The Oahu College was founded in 1841 for the purpose 
of providing instruction for the children of missionaries. 
It is now a well-established college with 758 students in 
1923, and has a beautiful campus of eighty acres. ‘The 
Cooke Memorial Library and the Art Gallery are con- 
nected with the college. 

The Capitol, built in an architectural style of rather 
questionable taste, is situated in a spacious park. It was 
originally the palace of King Kalakaua and his sister, Queen 
Liliuokalani, and it was here that the latter was tried and 
imprisoned for attempting to overthrow the Constitution. 
It now houses the Executive departments of the Govern- 
ment. In the Throne Room, the House of Representatives 
has its sessions, the Speaker of the House using the royal 
throne platform. 

The Judiciary Building, formerly the old government 
building, which houses the Territorial Circuit Court, is just 
opposite the Capitol on King Street, in front of which is 
the statue of Kamehameha I. The Library, completed in 
1913, has over 40,000 volumes. 

The new United States Federal Building, in the Cal- 
ifornia ‘‘mission” type of architecture, costing over $1,000,- 
000, was first occupied in April, 1922, and is used by the 
federal departments. 

The Moanalua Gardens are three and a half miles out 
of the city, and consist of over nine thousand acres of land 
owned by the Hon. S. M. Damon, the first banker in 
Hawaii and later the Minister of Finance under the Ha- 
waiian Republic, by whose courtesy it is open to the public. 


78 HAWAII 


Much of this is in the natural state. Some parts have 
choice landscape gardening, making an ensemble that gives 
a rare setting for a charming drive. Here one can see the 
method of growing rice, taro, bananas, alligator pears, 
oranges, and grapefruit, and there are native trees of every 
description. [he conspicuous house on a knoll is Mr. 
Damon’s residence. 

The fruits, trees and flowers that are not native but have 
been brought in from other lands are pines, candle nut, 
pomarind, rubber tree, China-rose tree, the lichee nut, the 


mango, the breadfruit, and the cocoanut; besides flowering — 


shrubs like the oleander, the hibiscus, and among other 
fruits the guava, orange, citron, fig, papaia, alligator Beats 
and various kinds of berries. 

Missionaries introduced and encouraged the growing at 
cotton, coffee, sugar, etc., furnishing the seed and giving 
object lessons in their culture. Rice was introduced in 1850, 
and its cultivation has become almost negligible. 

Sandal wood, which is so highly prized by the Chinese, 
was carried off to China in such large quantities to exchange 
for tea and silk that the sandal wood trees were nearly 
exterminated. 

In 1920 the coffee crop was valued at $1,500,000. The 
maximum output of sugar was 600,000 tons, valued at 
$100,000,000. In 1902 two thousand cases of pineapples 
were exported, while in 1923 there were 6,000,000 cases, and 
70,000 acres of land were given to pineapple culture, the 
export trade amounting to $30,000,000. 

The Salt Lake, half a mile beyond the gardens, is an 
extinct crater. A stick thrown into the water is quickly 
encrusted with salt. 


SUBURBAN TRIPS 


Wahiawa, twenty-five miles from Honolulu by rail, is 
in the heart of the pineapple district, and people, interested 
in its culture and canning, will find it well worth a visit. 

The Kaneche Coral Gardens are twelve miles from 


SHHSAG HHALTOO ONOWV LYOOAYHAUNVA “AC YayAOM ATHIA ATddVANId V 








Meth b AN. TRIPS 79 


Honolulu, and give opportunities not only for a charming 
shore drive by way of the Pali, but also an opportunity to 
study the fascinating coral castles and groves and a thousand 
forms of aquatic life through glass-bottomed boats. 

At Aiea, the whole process of sugar making with modern 
methods will be shown to interested visitors. 

An eighty-five-mile automobile drive on good roads en- 
circles a considerable part of the Island, and makes a most 
enjoyable trip, as it includes the various places above men- 
tioned. 

A railway trip of seventy-one miles to the west of the 
Island gives a changing panorama of sea and mountain, 
passing the Submarine Garden, Pearl Harbour, and many 
sugar plantations, stopping off for lunch at Haleiwa Hotel, 
which is fifty-six miles distant, and then proceeding to the 
terminus seventy-one miles, the return is made by way of 
Laie. ‘There is a large Mormon settlement at Laie, and it 
has the largest temple outside of Salt Lake City. For such 
a round trip on Sunday, Monday, Wednesday, or Friday, 
allowing two and a half hours at Haleiwa, where the coral 
gardens can be visited, a charge of $5.00 is made, including 
lunch at the Haleiwa Hotel. 


HONOLULU CHURCHES OF TODAY 


The Central Union Church (Congregational) is the 
most conspicuous Church in Honolulu. It is a new struc- 
ture, built in the Georgian style, and was designed by a 
Boston architect and built on a new site in a charming 
tropical garden of eight acres, and hence is called “the 
Church in the Garden.” ‘The immense open windows and 
doors give the effect of sitting in an open-air service, and its 
great organ, costing $28,000, is so arranged that it can be 
used for either an indoor or an outdoor service. “The whole 
- plant, including a parsonage, a community house and four 
Sunday School buildings, cost $550,000. It has forty-eight 
denominations represented in its large membership. Dr. 


80 HAWAII 


A. R. Palmer, its pastor, has just published a book of unusual 
interest entitled ““The Human Side of Hawaii.” 

The Kawaiahao Church, built of blocks of coral, is the 
historic Church of Honolulu, erected in 1836 under the 
Christian king, Kamahameha III. It seats one thousand 
people. It is built on the spot where the Rev. Hiram 
Bingham, a member of the earliest group of American mis- 
sionaries, preached his first sermon. It was the Church of 
Hawaiian royalty for many years. One of the interesting 
facts about this Church is that an American missionary, 
himself a son of one of the earliest missionaries, recently 
completed a consecutive pastorate of fifty years there. Many 
early American missionaries are buried in its Churchyard. 

The First Mission Building, built October, 1921, as © 
the original structure, was erected from materials brought 
from Boston. It housed the seventeen original missionary 
workers, besides the printing press, the carpenter’s shop, the 
surgery. Its souvenir collections have a fascinating interest. 

The Roman Catholic Cathedral on Fourth Street is 
the next oldest Church, being opened in 1843. St. An- 
drew’s Cathedral (Episcopal) on Emma Street, was es- 
tablished in 1862. The Methodist Episcopal Church on 
Berelania Street was built in 1911. 

A Chinese Christian Church was built in 1888 and in 
1888 the first Japanese Church was organised. 

The Queen’s Hospital is near the centre of the city and 
has interesting grounds and an avenue of date palms. 


EDUCA TT Ga 


People interested in social betterment should visit some 
of the settlements, the normal schools, the Mid-Pacific Insti- 
tute for training Hawaiian leaders, the Kamehameha schools, 
and the Punahoe school, which prepares for American col- 
leges, and especially the public schools from the kindergarten 
up to the State University. 

To show how far education is permeating the life of the 


EDUCATION SI 


people, one need merely mention the fact that a Japanese 
boy of thirteen in a school connected with a sugar plantation, 
in competition with all the public school children of the 
United States on the subject, “How Best to Serve America,” 
won the first prize of $250 offered. A Japanese boy in the 
McKinley High School also took the prize in a contest on 
“My Ideal of Character,” in which he represented Jesus 
Christ as his supreme ideal. 

There is now no illiteracy, except among recent immi- 
grants, as school attendance is compulsory between the ages 
of six and fifteen. The Roman Catholic Church maintains 
the St. Louis College for Boys and a Convent for girls. 
The Episcopal Church conducts Iolani College for Boys and 
the Priory for girls. The Y. W. C. A. conducts a boarding 
home for white girls called Fernhurst, 


GENERAL INFORMATION 


It is interesting to visit what was formerly a foreign 
country and find American money, American postage, the 
American flag, and, what is even more important, charming 
American people. 

The Moana Hotel, which is located here, furnishes very 
modern and comfortable hotel accommodations, costing about 
$7.00 a day upward. It has a beautiful setting and is the cen- 
tre of much social activity and gaiety. here is always sing- 
ing by the glee club and a native orchestra furnishes music for 
dancing. Here one can enjoy sea bathing, fishing, motoring, 
surf-riding, yachting, shark-hunting, and mountain climbing, 
and by securing temporary membership in the Oahu Country 
Club one can have the further advantages of tennis, golf, 
and polo. Young’s Hotel in the City itself, under the same 
management as the Moana, is a large modern hostelry. 
‘Tourists are the third largest crop (next to sugar and pine- 
apples), and a new $2,000,000 hotel is planned at Waikiki, 
to be completed by 1927. “The Oahu Golf Club has bought 
600 more acres for additional golf courses. 

Honolulu’s standards of living and of social life are little 


82 HAW ATI 


different from those of any other progressive American city. 

Army officers and their families add much to the social 
life and to the pleasure of visitors in the Islands. Military 
dances, public drills and parades give spice to the general 
activities. 

The climate is very equable. ‘There are no typhoons or 
hurricanes, no intense heat, no fog, no raw disagreeable 
weather, and little humidity. In January, 1921, the highest 
temperature in Honolulu was 80° F. and the lowest 58° F. 
In June the figures were 84° F. and 69° F. The heavier 
rains come from November to February, inclusive. 

Travel is safe; railways and hotels are comfortable. 
‘There are, however, few distinctively Hawaiian products in 
the shops and the prices of goods are higher than in the 
United States. 

A great fire in Honolulu in January, 1900, proved a 
blessing in disguise, as it wiped out the wretched slums which 
had been the source of various diseases, and, besides, prepared 
the way for a cleaner city and the establishment of better 
building laws. 

Even after a brief stay the visitor is inclined to echo the 
words of Mark Twain: “No other land could so longingly 
and beseechingly haunt me sleeping and waking through 
half a lifetime as this one has done.” 


SUPPLEMENTARY FAS 
FIGURES 


Hawaii is 2,020 miles southwest of San Francisco. It 
was an independent kingdom until 1893, at which time 
Queen Liliuokalani was deposed and a Republic with a Pro- 
visional Government was proclaimed. On August 12, 1898, 
the Islands were annexed to the United States, and it be- 
came the Territory of Hawaii in 1900. 

The Governor and Secretary of the Islands, who must be 
citizens of Hawaii, are appointed for four years by the 
President of the United States. “The present Governor, 


SUPPLEMENTARY FACTS 83 


W. R. Farrington, is paid a salary of $10,000 and his term 
expires in 1929. “The Governor has a right to veto any 
bill passed by the Legislature, but a vote of two-thirds by 
both Houses will pass any measure over his veto. 

There are numerous Federal departments such as War, 
Navy, Customs, Public Health, etc., all chief appointments 
being made from Washington, acting under the advice of 
the Governor and of the Hawaiian Senate. The former 
Royal Palace now has offices accommodating the Governor 
of Hawaii, the Attorney General, and other officials. ‘The 
old Throne Room is the Governor’s reception room. The 
House of Representatives with thirty members, and the Sen- 
ate with fifteen members, also occupy portions of the palace, 
the Senate using the royal state dining room. Hawaii is 
self-governing to a greater extent than any other Territory. 
It is represented by one delegate to Congress, with the privi- 
lege of the floor, but no vote. 

The Islands have a total area of 6,449 square miles and 
a total population (1924) of 307,100. 

The Hawaiian National Parks consist of three sections: 
the Haleakala Park, on the island of Maui, with 21,150 
acres; the Mauna Loa Park on the island of Hawaii, with 
17,380 acres; and the Kilauea Volcano Park, with 79,265 
acres inclusive of the Kau (lava) Desert. “These Parks 
not only have high mountains and active and inactive craters 
with great lava beds, but wonderful tropical forests and a 
wealth of floral colour. 

The Judiciary consists of a Supreme Court, four Circuit 
Courts and many District Courts. “The names of candidates 
for Judges are usually suggested by the Governor and the 
Bar Association, but the appointments are made by the Presi- 
dent of the United States, with the concurrence of the United 
States Senate. 

English is the language in common use. In 1922, 51,557 
scholars were enrolled in the public schools, and 9,557 in 
private schools. Of this number only 1,668 are Anglo- 
Saxon. 


84 HAWAII 


The total Government receipts in 1924 were $15,440,493, 
and the expenditures $14,607,373, the total assessed value 
of the property being $357,002,080. Imports for 1924 were 
$78,665,312, and exports $110,726,476. Of this amount, 
$105,000,000 was in sugar and pineapples. 

‘There are 1,028 domestic corporations with a total capital 
of $249,452,798. Americans and Europeans own 1,250,000 
acres of tillable land, while the native Hawaiians and other 
races Own 257,000 acres. 

Commerce is mostly with the United States. In 1924, 
966 vessels entered its ports, and there are 969 miles of 
railroad, “’welve lines of steamers stop in Hawaii. 


RECENT BIBLIOGRAPHY 
Human Side of Hawaii, Rev. Dr. A. R. Palmer. ’24, 


Pilgrim Press. 

Dear Hawaii, M. L. Restarick. ’22, Honolulu. 

The Pacific Triangle, S. Greenbie. ’21, Century. 

Our Hawaii, C. London. ’22, Macmillan. 

Under Hawaiian Skies, A. P. Taylor. ’22, Advertiser Pub- 
lishing Co. 

Real Japanese Questions (In Hawaii), K. K. Kawakami. 
21, Macmillan. 

Song of Hawaii, L. E. Capps. ’21, Honolulu. 

Pilgrims of Hawaii, O. H. Gulick. 718, Revell. 

Kamehameha the Great, H. H. Gowen. 719, Revell. 

Geography of Hawaiian Islands, C. N. Baldwin. 

Hawaiian Mission Centennial Book, 574 King Street. 
Honolulu. 

Reminiscences of Old Hawaii, 8. E. Bishop. ’16, Honolulu. 

Hawaii, Past and Present, W. R. Castle. ’17, Dodd. 

Coming Hawaii, J. K. Goodrich. ’14, McClurg. 

Spell of the Hawaiian Islands, 1. Anderson. ’16, Page. 

Hawaii, Scenes and Impressions, K. F. Gerould. ’16, 
Scribner. 

Hawaiian Historical Legends, W. D. Westervelt. Revell. 


JAPAN 


“Japan’s sun has risen and her century aloe flowers today.” 


APAN consists of five major islands together with 
hundreds of smaller ones. It has some majestic moun- 
tains, the Fujiyama, famed in Japanese art, song, and 

story, being the highest. It has fully a thousand hot springs, 
many with valuable medicinal properties, some lovely lakes 
and seashore resorts, besides temples, palaces, pagodas, shrines, 
parks, gardens,—all the products of the art genius of the 
Japanese. ‘Their art also reveals itself in charming colour 
prints, decorative wood-carving, superb metal designs, and 
rich lacquer work. 

‘The great earthquake calamity that befell Japan on Sept. 
I, 1923, in the destruction of Yokohama, and the partial 
destruction of Tokyo and adjacent towns, was a terrific 
blow, but Japan is meeting the situation with her accus- 
tomed energy. Fortunately, at the time of the disaster, 
Japan had balances in America and Europe of half a billion 
dollars, and had another half billion in gold in her great 
banks. 


ful. ORY 


Japan was originally inhabited by the Ainu, once a very 
numerous people, low in the scale of civilisation, who were 
unable to resist the migrations of the Japanese, when they 
began to overrun the country. Authorities do not agree as 
to the origin of the Japanese people, but undoubtedly they 
were of the Mongolian race, with possibly some Malay inter- 
mixture. “They drove the original Ainu so completely out 
of the country, that almost no impression of its civilisation 

85 


86 YP Bel bbs Loe 


was made upon the conquerors, and today there are only 
a few thousand surviving, mostly in the Kurali Islands. 

According to Japanese chronology, the Empire was 
founded by Jimmu Tenno in 660 B. c., but the first authentic 
date is 461 A. D., when we find the Mikado ruling over all of 
Japan except the northern section, where the Ainu aborigines 
still held the power. ‘The Japanese royal: family has reigned 
in unbroken line from that ancient time until the present, 
thus being the longest continuous dynasty in the world’s 
history, though it must be added that, when a legitimate 
heir was lacking, a son of an influential concubine became 
the successor to the throne. 

The civilisation of China began to filter into the country, 
by means of Buddhist priests from Korea who introduced 
the Buddhist religion and the Chinese classics. In the sixth 
and seventh centuries the nation was converted to Buddhism, 
which afterward had such a powerful literary, artistic, and 
philosophic influence upon the people. At Nara, the capital 
of that period, art and culture began to develop rapidly, and 
the first Japanese book, the Kojiki, appeared at this time. 
The capital of the country was removed from Nara and 
established at Kyoto in 795. A strange dual system of gov- 
ernment arose, the Mikado (dwelling in isolated splendour 
at Kyoto) being regarded as having divine authority, but the 
Shoguns with their hosts of armed retainers were the real 
rulers. | 

There have been many famous Japanese Shoguns, among 
them the family of Hojo, who repulsed the fleet sent by 
Kublai Khan to demand the submission of Japan. From that 
day till this, no foreign foe has ever touched on her shores. 

Under the Shoguns were the chieftains of the various 
clans who were called daimyos, who were much like the 
feudal robber barons in Medizval Europe, in that they ex- 
ploited the peasants (who were somewhat similar to their 
serfs), and became rich and powerful, each having a consid- 
erable army for his own defence, although continually stand- 
ing ready to respond to the call of the Shogun. 


THE SHOGUNS 87 


Under the jurisdiction of these daimyos, were the samuri, 
who were the warrior class, similar to the knights of medizval 
Europe, and who were entitled to wear two swords. These 
were subject to the code known as the Bushido, or “Ways 
of the Fighting Man.” ‘The two powerful rival clans during 
this period were the Satsuma and the Chosu. 

In the fifteenth century the tea ceremonial, the No lyric 
drama, and various other cultural arts were originated. 
‘Trade opened with China and priests and artists passed back 
and forth. ‘The first Portuguese ship touched Japanese 
shores in 1541, and Francis Xavier, the famous Jesuit mis- 
sionary, arrived in 1549. 

The Shogun, Hideyoshi, about this time brought the 
whole country under his sway by checking the constant inter- 
necine feuds. He built his castle at Osaka, and a palatial 
palace in Kyoto, and under a unified Japan, painting, archi- 
tecture, and a love of display developed. He routed the 
Koreans and their Chinese allies in many engagements, and 
planned to subjugate China, but his death ended the ambi- 
tious programme. 

Iyeyasu was the founder of the famous Tokugawa fam- 
ily of Shoguns. Although he was one of the generals of 
Hideyoshi, he provoked war with his master and, after a 
speedy triumph, became the acknowledged ruler of the nation. 
His family held the Shogunate for two and a half centuries, 
during which period Japan enjoyed peace and prosperity. 
It was during this time that the policy of Japanese isolation 
was developed. ‘The Catholic missionaries who had become 
influential were driven out, the land was closed to foreign 
trade, except that Dutch and Chinese traders, in a restricted 
way, were allowed to land at Nagasaki. It was during these 
centuries that Japanese feudalism was brought to its perfec- 
tion, and the Japanese arts were most extensively cultivated. 

The “hermit” nation had during all this time been so 
dominated by the desire for isolation, that there naturally 
was stubborn resistance to the demand for the ‘“‘open door” 
that came from Western countries, sometimes actually em- 


88 PAB YMAAN 


phasised by the presence of warships in the harbour. But 
after emphatic demands at various times by British, French 
and Dutch warships, it was an American, Commodore Perry, 
who thrust the door open. A period of civil dissension fol- 
lowed, together with riots among the people, and the Shogun- 
ate, which had already been weakened, fell, and with it 
dragged down the whole fabric of medizval civilisation. 
The Shogun and his daimyos, recognising the futility of 
their position, gave their resignation in 1868, to the fifteen- 
year-old emperor, Mutsuhito, thus relinquishing the vica- 
rious control which the Shogunate had maintained for a thou- 
sand years. ‘This emperor asserted his own right to rule, 
moved his capital from Kyoto to Tokyo, and promptly ap- 
pointed the Shogun and his daimyos as ministers and execu- 
tives of the new order. But as these still represented the 
military classes, Japan has been permeated by the militaristic 
spirit even to this day. 

Since 1868, Japan’s development has been incredibly rapid. 
The Japanese have been as friendly to new ideas and cus- 
toms, as they formerly were hostile. “They have adopted 
all Occidental inventions and machinery,—telegraphs, mints, 
railroads, newspapers, mercantile marine, and military meth- 
ods and organisation. In 1870, feudalism was abolished in 
the laconic decree, “the clans are..abolished, and prefectures 
are established in their places.” ‘The Japanese adopted our 
calendar, discarding their extremely difficult and compli- 
cated way of reckoning time by dynasties. ‘The Bank of 
Japan has since been an important agent in maintaining 
economic stability and encouraging economic development. 
There has been a general internal reconstruction, new civil 
codes have been adopted, a constitution was granted in 
1889, and Japan has been received on terms of equality and 
alliance with Western nations. 


EARTHQUAKES 


Japan is a centre of seismic activity largely caused by the 
gradual subsiding of areas of land in the bottom of the sea, 


BORE OUAKES 89 


sometimes followed by destructive tidal waves, although 
fortunately these were of small proportions in the recent 
Japan disaster. 

During twenty-one years, Japan had 30,680 earthquakes 
recorded, or a daily average of four, mostly unimportant, 
but during the 450 years previously, 224 earthquakes of a 
more serious character occurred, averaging one in every six 
and a half years. Kyoto has had a real calamity about once 
every fifty years,—while Tokyo had only one calamitous 
visitation during the last three hundred years, namely, in 
1855 (when Tokyo was still called Yedo), at which time 
50,000 houses were destroyed and 6,700 people perished. In 
1891, in the Nino and Owari districts, 222,501 houses were 
destroyed and 7,273 deaths were recorded, and in 1896, in 
the Sanriku districts, there were 27,122 deaths, largely from 
tidal waves. 

The earthquake of September 1, 1923, which, together 
with fire, practically destroyed Yokohama, and destroyed two- 
fifths of Tokyo, is the greatest disaster of its kind in history. 
The official figures have stated that there were 99,331 killed, 
103,733 wounded, and 43,476 missing. ‘The total money 
loss is computed at $4,586,000,000. Several other earth- 
quakes in the Spring of 1925 caused hundreds of deaths and 
destroyed property worth millions of yen. It is officially 
estimated that within five years $375,000,000 will be spent 
in reconstructing Tokyo, and $150,000,000 in Yokohama. 
The whole world expressed its sympathy with Japan in its 
terrible calamity, and food was sent in such quantities, that 
some of the perishable kind was actually wasted. The 
United States raised a fund quite exceeding $10,000,000, 
besides sending large amounts of grain and other food. This 
has done a great deal to counteract the prejudice, which to 
a certain extent has been growing in Japan, against Amer- 
ica. It should be remembered that Japan, in 1906, con- 
tributed half a million dollars towards the relief fund for 
stricken San Francisco. 

The United States also is helping Japan in securing lum- 


90 JAPAN 


ber and other building materials by getting anti-profiteering 
pledges from shippers. ‘The ships of the American Navy 
anchored in Yokohama did a very remarkable work in res- 
cuing people who were in imminent danger of their lives. 
The American Japanese Society gave a luncheon to the 
American Ambassador, Cyrus E. Woods, in which Baron 
Ijuin, the Foreign Minister, expressed the gratitude of the 
Japanese people for “the greatest act of philanthropy in the 
world’s history,” 


GOVERNMENT AND IMPERIAL 
PSP TC Pav Aree 


There are two forces at work in Japanese Government. 
There is, first of all, a constitutional Government which is 
modern, democratic and pacifistic. “Then there is an invisible 
Government, mysterious, militaristic, imperialistic. Hereto- 
fore, the latter has been the dominant spirit of Japan, and 
even yet it seems the more authoritative. 

General Staff. While the Emperor is the autocrat of 
the State, this absolutism is never exercised, as he is chiefly 
a majestic figure-head, being largely dominated by the Gen- 
eral Staff. Formerly this autocratic power was in the hands 
of the Elder Statesmen, but these have recently died. It 
resides, however, in the Chief of the General Staff and the 
little oligarchy of naval and military leaders associated with 
him. ‘Through their influence with the Emperor they prac- 
tically exercise an absolute confirmation or veto. “The fact 
that the sentiment of the country is largely against war has 
comparatively little bearing, as the Emperor’s decision is 
absolute. 

The General Staff are quite apt to dominate national 
politics. ‘They make and overthrow Cabinets. ‘They ap- 
point or dismiss generals, admirals and officials at large. 
‘The Chief of the General Staff, who is executive head of the 
Army and Navy, as well as of colonial and all foreign 
affairs, is really the executive head of this invisible Govern- 


THE ELDER STATESMEN 91 


ment. He wields a larger influence than does the actual 
Premier of the constitutional Government. 

The General Staff. While the Emperor is the autocrat 
of the State, this absolutism is never exercised, as he is 
chiefly a majestic figurehead, being largely dominated by 
the “Elder Statesmen.” ‘These men, who have been four 
in number (although two, namely Prince Yamagata and 
Count Okuma, have recently died), are neither elected nor 
appointed, and they have no official status whatever, but 
through their influence with the Emperor, they practically 
exercise an absolute confirmation or veto. They are men who 
_ formerly were ministers, who have nominally retired, but in 
reality have retained and enlarged their powers. “They make 
and overthrow cabinets. “They appoint or dismiss generals, 
admirals, and officials at large. “They usually work in close 
conjunction with the Chief of the General Staff, who is ex- 
ecutive head of the Army and Navy, as well as of colonial 
and foreign affairs, and is really the executive head of this 
invisible Government. He wields a larger influence than 
does the actual Premier of the constitutional Government. 

The Invisible Government. This unseen empire is 
made up of Army and Navy officers, politicians with militar- 
istic and imperialistic sympathies, some of the leaders of 
finance and big business, the military attachés, the aristocrats, 
and a host of unknown spies, representing the bureaucrats,— 
all dominated by the General Staff. They largely under- 
mine and nullify the policies of the constitutional Govern- 
ment whenever they are not in accord with it, because of 
their influence with the Emperor. 

Their power is strengthened by the fact that many who 
are actively, even though secretly, identified with the invis- 
ible Government, hold responsible positions in the constitu- 
tional Government. As the Emperor, and not the Premier, 
appoints the members of the cabinet, it goes without saying 
that the cabinet can always be influenced by the Chief of 
the General Staff, though often an appointment less desirable 
is accepted by them, for the sake of conciliating public 


92 JAPAN 


opinion. They can, however, checkmate the Premier’s plans. 
Even so progressive a Premier as the late Mr. Hara was 
unable to carry out many of his cherished pacifistic policies, 
although the “‘Elder Statesmen” then in control did not seek 
to force him out of office. 

The evident inconsistencies of Japan, in not carrying out 
her promises, are due less to the insincerity of the constitu- 
tional Government, than to the opposition and intrigue of 
the invisible Government. For instance, when Premier Hara 
was actually promising the Powers in 1920, that Japan 
would immediately withdraw from Siberia, the General 
Staff was rushing reinforcements into Siberia without the 
Premier’s knowledge, until the number of Japanese soldiers 
(which by agreement with the Allies was limited to 7,000), 
was fully 70,000 at its maximum. 

Hence the protestation of the Japanese delegation at the 
Disarmament Conference in Washington, that Japan had no 
military ambitions, must not be accepted too literally, in 
view of the uncertainty as to whether the militaristic in- 
visible Government will confirm the statement. 

Japan’s International Policy. For several decades 
past Japan has publicly declared that her “future lies over- 
seas.” She has annexed Formosa, Korea and Sakhalin, has 
occupied Manchuria and has been awarded the Marshall and 
Caroline Islands, which were formerly German possessions. 
While she has nominally withdrawn from Siberia and 
Shantung, her commercial and industrial interests are still 
dominant there. 

The real reason why Japan, which during the time of the 
Russo-Japanese War had the sympathy and admiration of 
the whole world, has since that time come under such uni- 
versal suspicion, is because. her attempted leadership in Asia 
and her international relations have been upon a purely sel- 
fish and materialistic basis. “This is not only true of the 
Government, but has increasingly become true in the case 
of individuals. 

While apparently suave and conciliatory in their relations 


PY LERNATIONAL POLICY 93 


with foreign representatives, their course, in the conquest of 
countries like Korea and Formosa, has been marked by 
cruelty and craftiness. Count Terauchi, who ruled with 
such an iron hand as dictator in Korea, afterwards became 
Premier of Japan. Japan has seemed to be saturated with 
the spirit of German imperialism. Whether she has taken 
the lesson of Germany’s collapse to heart, and is abandoning 
her overweening world ambitions, is a question concerning 
which there still seems to be world-wide doubt. 

Almost all the nations of the world are viewing Japan 
with a tacit suspicion: 

The Russians still resent Japan’s military invasion of 
Siberia and Sakhalin, and are not reconciled to the loss of 
Manchuria. Although by the Treaty with Russia in Jan- 
uary, 1925, she has evacuated northern Sakhalin, she retains 
the valuable oil concessions. 

The Koreans are in a fever heat of antagonism and revolt 
and the reports that the Koreans, who were living in Tokyo 
at the time of the earthquake disaster, immediately took ad- 
vantage of the occasion to loot, and to defy law, indicate the 
deep-seated hatred that is in the heart of every Korean. 
The similar statement that the Japanese attacked unoffend- 
ing Koreans indicates a reciprocity of hate. 

China, in spite of race similarity and perhaps partly be- 
cause of it, distrusts her island neighbour. It will take her 
more than a generation to forgive and forget the twenty-one 
demands which were presented by Japan in 1916. 

The Philippines, Australia and all of southern Asia in- 
cluding India, maintain an open distrust of Japan’s motives, 
even though the iron hand is usually clothed in a velvet glove. 

Hawaii has 125,000 Japanese, fully two-fifths of her en- 
tire population, and the Japanese issue is the burning prob- 
lem there. Our own western states and western Canada 
are up in arms against the Japanese economic and industrial 
invasion. 

So the story goes. Holland has fears for Java; England, 
for her Asiatic possessions; France begrudges Japan’s com- 


94 J APA IV 


mercial success in China; Germany resents Japan’s seizure 
of Tsing-tau. 


AMERICAN AND JAPANESE 
RELATIONS 


The United States has to a lesser degree shared in this 
spirit of distrust, except on our Pacific coast, where it is quite 
acute. Japan, on the other hand, has had a chronic griev- 
ance that the American people, and especially those on our 
Western coast, have shown racial discrimination, and the 
Japanese claim that their national self-respect gives them rea- 
son for resentment. Japan points with pride to the fact, 
that within sixty-five years she has emerged from a hermit 
nation, steeped in medizval traditions, into one of the world’s 
first-class Powers. ‘This according to Japan’s view, should 
be a sufficient reason, why she should be placed on a basis 
of equality with Occidental races. 

The problem of Japan in California, however, is not racial, 
but political and economic. ‘There are only 111,000 Japanese 
in the United States, or one in one thousand of our popula- 
tion. It is also true that the Japanese in California own only 
one and eight-tenths per cent. of her soil, and constitute two 
per cent. of her population. But the fact should not be lost 
sight of, that this two per cent. of her soil represents the 
very choicest valley land most valuable in gardening and 
fruit culture. As probably not over twenty per cent. of 
the land in California is cultivable, and as much of the other 
cultivated land is very inferior to that owned by the Jap- 
anese, it is clear that they already have as much cultivable 
land in proportion to their population, as have the other 
inhabitants, and even more. 

The recent vote in California excluding the Japanese 
from the right to own or lease land stood 668,000 to 220,000 
in favour of this restriction. On November 12, 1923, the 
Supreme Court of the United States upheld the right of 
California in this matter, stating that the action conflicted 
neither with the Fourteenth Amendment nor with the 


JAPANESE RESTRICTIONS 95 


American-Japanese treaty. Japan has bitterly resented this 
new State law, and continues to demand an equal property 
status as a right from America, even though she herself 
does not pretend to give this to us or to any other foreigners. 

Japan does not permit the purchase of land by Americans, 
but asks such a right of purchase for her people. “There are 
only 19,500 foreigners in all Japan, of whom 12,000 are 
Chinese, 2,400 are British, and 1,800 are Americans. Japan 
will not allow these Americans, or any other foreigners, to 
own land for business, agricultural, or residence purposes. 
Even such an altruistic organisation as the Y. M. C. A. 
carried on by Americans, must erect its buildings on leased 
land and on a very precarious basis. “The House of Peers 
has again taken up the question of land ownership by for- 
eigners, recognising that Japan is in an inconsistent position. 
If such a Bill passes and is sanctioned by the Emperor, it 
will probably be on a basis of reciprocity, the privilege being 
granted only to such nations as grant Japanese citizens in 
foreign lands similar rights. 

Japan does not permit the free entrance of alien labour 
into her domain, but resents the exclusion of her people in 
this country. Japan also makes the naturalisation of aliens 
in her country almost impossible, in nearly all cases being 
men who had married Japanese wives. Banks, steamship 
companies and government railways do not accept foreigners 
even as shareholders. Yet Japan demands that her people 
be admitted to citizenship in the United States. It is a 
question whether the laws giving to all Japanese born in this 
country, Hawaii or elsewhere on American soil, the full 
rights of citizenship automatically on reaching the age of 
twenty-one, is not an excessive altruistic concession. It is 
making a disturbing and perhaps dangerous crisis in Hawaii. 

The Exclusion Act passed by our Congress in the Spring 
of 1925 has aroused intense resentment in Japan. Mr. 
Matsudaira warned this country that “grave consequences 
would result.” Congressman Britten made the ill-timed 
proposal to Congress, which of course was not acted upon, 


96 JAPAN 


that a union of the white races on the Pacific be formed 
to forestall any aggression by Japan. 

Imperialistic Programme. Japan certainly has dreamed 
of the naval and commercial control in Asia and the Pacific. 
How far the hostile attitude of European nations and the 
resentful spirit of China, to say nothing of the earthquake 
disaster (from which it will take her several years fully to 
recover), may cause her to abandon this imperialistic scheme 
can only be surmised. 

There are certain arguments that might indicate a change 
of heart. “The Japanese militarist party must be aware from 
the collapse of Germany, that imperialism will no longer be 
tolerated by the world at large. Any designs that she may 
have had of acquiring the Philippines, Guam and Samoa by 
forcible means, may have been somewhat affected by the fact 
that the United States during the World War (although 
before that time having been utterly unprepared), was able 
to place more than four million men in the field, and to 
transport nearly two million of them across three thousand 
miles of the Atlantic. “This must have opened the eyes of 
Japan to the fact that ‘Uncle Sam” when fully aroused 
would be a formidable antagonist. 

Japan also accepted the findings of the Washington con- 
ference in reducing her navy to a proportion of five to three, 
apparently carrying out to the letter all the agreements ar- 
ranged for in that conference. 

It is also argued in support of this view that any aggres- 
sion which would lead to war with the United States, would 
be almost suicidal, in that it would largely cripple her com- 
merce. More than one-third of all the products of her Em- 
pire are exported to the United States, together with seventy 
per cent. of her raw and manufactured silk, and practically 
all of her tea. While this, of course, seems a valid argument, 
similar conditions did not deter Germany in an aggressive 
war upon the Allied Powers. 

The Japanese also claim it would be folly for Japan to 
make war on any western Power, because if China and Brit- 


JAPANESE PREPAREDNESS 97 


ain would turn against her, she could get no steel or oil 
to carry on warfare, and that war is not only a question of 
ships, guns and naval stations, but of economic and financial 
factors, in which Japan is very inferior to the United States 
or Great Britain, which would probably side against her. 

Mr. K. K. Kawakami in the monthly magazine “Japan” 
(which is sheer propaganda in the interests of Japan), and 
in such books as “Japan’s Pacific Policy” makes a strong and 
quite plausible case in favour of Japan’s change of heart as 
regards her militaristic designs upon Asia and the world. 
He states that Japan has withdrawn entirely from Siberia 
where she had 70,000 troops (but only after a strong pro- 
test from the Powers), has reduced the number of soldiers 
in Manchuria, as well as her army and navy personnel in 
general, has abolished her post offices in China, and has sur- 
rendered Shantung entirely to the Chinese authorities, and 
even yielded her claim on the Shantung railway. 

He denies that the Bonin Islands have been fortified to 
any sufficient extent to make them of any value as naval 
bases, especially in view of the fact that in none of these 
islands would there be a harbour deep enough to admit large 
ocean steamers, much less capital ships. He also denies that 
Japan has any designs upon Guam and the Philippines. 

Imperialistic Preparation. ‘There is, however, an- 
other side to this entire argument. ‘Terry’s able guide-book 
on Japan, published in 1914, states that the Bonin Islands, 
550 miles southeast of Yokohama, are high, rocky and of 
volcanic origin. Chichijima, or “Father Island,” has a bay 
called Futami Minato, which is about one and one-half miles 
long and one mile broad, having a coral bottom and a depth 
of from 120 to 150 feet. “The harbour is shut in on three 
sides, so protecting it from typhoons. It is admirably 
adapted for a stronghold. ‘The highest point on these islands 
is 1,471 feet. 

Such a fortified base would not only make a great naval 
station, but the harbour would accommodate the largest of 


98 MASP OAIN' 


fleets, and from this point of vantage, the seizure of the 
Philippines would become doubly easy. 

Some able writers, like Sidney Greenbie, in his “Pacific 
Triangle,” have asserted that this Island was hastily forti- 
fied before and during the time of the Washington Con- 
ference. 

Japan, with a Navy of five to three capital ships, in favour 
of the United States, could hardly cross the 5,500 miles to 
San Francisco, especially in view of powerful fortifications 
at Hawaii. But Japan would never dream of aggressive 
warfare against the United States itself. She is, however, 
resuming a feverish activity in building naval vessels not 
under the ban of the Washington Conference. During the 
last five years, she has built twenty-three light cruisers 
as against sixteen built by Great Britain and the United 
States together. On January 1, 1925, Japan had twenty- 
one cruisers under construction, England six, and the United 
States none. In regard to submarines, Japan had fourteen, 
England three, and the United States nine. Japan’s argu- 
ment is that work must be provided for her 157,000 ship- 
building employés. 

This has given rise to a widespread suspicion that Japan, 
while literally carrying out all the provisions of the Wash- 
ington Conference, is continuing her naval preparation, so 
that eventually she may become mistress of Asia. It is diffi- 
cult to understand what other reason she would have for 
building more combatant auxiliary tonnage than all other 
Powers combined. When the present Japanese programme 
is complete, she will have twenty-five modern cruisers, and 
seventy submarines, the majority of which could cross and 
recross the Pacific without a new supply of fuel. 

This seems to be introducing a new era of naval rivalry 
and distrust. The United States is already discussing a new 
programme of building similar ships to counterbalance Japan, 
and there seems to be a widespread view, that it is because 
of these growing building activities on the part of Japan, 
that Great Britain has about decided to fortify Singapore and 


eevee hE PAREDNESS «99 


thus make it impregnable to naval assault. While the United 
States had really made Hawaii a great fortification and 
naval base, she had done comparatively little to put the 
Philippines, Guam and Samoa into a state of preparedness, 
and, by the terms of the Washington Conference agreement, 
is now prevented from fortifying them. It is as Franklin 
D. Roosevelt, the Assistant Secretary of the Navy said: 
“No fortifications now existing in the Philippines and Guam 
can be, in the light of the last war, seriously considered.” 

As a result, Japan is in a position to cut off all communi- 
cations between the United States and the Philippines at 
her will, and could make an overnight conquest of the 
Philippines, Guam and Samoa. ‘The northern point of the 
Philippines is only two hundred miles from the Japanese 
territory of Formosa. With Hawaii 3,300 miles away, the 
United States, if she lost her western Pacific naval bases, 
would be unable to use her capital ships, either to regain her 
lost territory, or to wage a naval battle with Japan. 

It is no wonder that Japan showed herself entirely willing, 
at the Washington Conference, to make an agreement with 
the United States, that she would not increase her coast 
defences except on her own shores, on condition that the 
United States would not add to her coast defences in the 
Pacific, except on the Pacific coast and at Hawaii. 

The fact is that we have locked the doors of the Far East 
upon ourselves and put the key into the hands of Japan. 
From this time on, we hold the Philippines merely by her 
grace and tolerance. 

This agreement is on a ten year basis, and it may be 
hoped that the tragic results of the earthquake of September, 
1923, may tend to discourage Japan from making any effort 
to eliminate the United States from the western Pacific 
during the coming decade. 

As matters stand, the United States has only ten battle 
cruisers built and building. “This would mean that, in case 
of war, if the Philippines were taken, American shipping 
would instantly be wiped out in the Pacific west of Hawaii. 


100 LAPAN 


It may, therefore, be assumed that the United States naval 
authorities will begin to consider plans to be prepared against 
even the possibility of war. Having surrendered the right to 
build safe defences in the Philippines, she should, as a matter 
of precaution, be properly equipped with cruisers, submarines 
and other “auxiliary combatant” vessels, which would put 
her upon a safe basis, in case war should be precipitated in 
the Pacific. It is also important that the United States be 
supplied with a great air fleet, especially in view of the fact, 
that a thousand military airplanes could be built for the 
cost of one battleship. 

‘The world has some very definite basis for the widespread 
suspicion that Japan has held, and perhaps still holds, her 
imperialistic designs. For instance, Prince Yamagata, who 
until his recent death was one of the four Genro, is reported 
to have said, “Japan wants a weak and incapable China. 
A weak emperor subject to Japan’s influence would be the 
ideal state.” 

Count Okuma, a former Premier and until his recent 
death, one of the ‘Big Four” Elder Statesmen, used these 
words in an address to the Chamber of Commerce at Kobe. 
“There are 300,000,000 natives of India looking to us to 
rescue them from the thraldom of Great Britain.” 

Baron Makino said: “Japan views with great alarm the 
moral awakening of the 400,000,000 Chinese.” 

The following is a Japanese Imperial Pronouncement 
issued in the Autumn of 1916: 

“Fifty million of our race are to conquer and possess the 
earth. ‘To begin with, we now have China [this was written 
when Japan expected, under the 21 Demands, to control 
China], so that our fifty millions will become 500,000,000 
strong. 

“Our first goal must be the sea, but the sea means the 
western Americas [the Philippines, Guam, &c.], and with 
this must soon come Australia, India, and then the 
battling for the balance of world power for the rest of 
North America. Once that is ours we own and con- 


meow elRIALIS M IOI 


trol the whole, a domination worthy of our race.” 

It is interesting to note that Premier Yamamoto, even 
since the earthquate, is apparently looking ahead to possible 
war complications. “These are his words spoken in October, 
1923: “With the Washington agreements available only for 
a limited period, and with growing possibilities of clashes 
of interests among Powers in general, it is advisable for 
Japan to direct its efforts at reorganisation in such a manner 
as to consolidate the national foundation.” 

On the other hand, Mr. Matsudaira, the new Japanese 
Ambassador to the United States, recently said: “War be- 
tween our two countries is a physical impossibility, and we 
are destined to live at peace for all time.” 

It certainly seems strange, however, that the Japanese 
should embark upon a naval-building campaign far beyond 
that of any other nation, and at the same time bitterly resent 
as “provocative of war” our naval manceuvres at Hawaii 
3,300 miles away, as well as the proposed plan of England 
to fortify Singapore, which is over 2,300 miles away. It 
was also a singular fact that Japan had one of her naval 
vessels, with experts from her naval staff, trailing all our 
naval activities at Hawaii, which no other nation had the 
effrontery to do. It is also strange that Japan is apparently 
hostile to the proposed Second Disarmament Conference, 
basing her objection on Great Britain’s plans for Singapore 
and the United States fleet manceuvres at Hawaii. It is only 
fair to state, however, that this antagonism represents the 
Japanese press and has not been in the form of an official 
protest from the Japanese Government. 

This whole subject has been discussed by the author, not 
in the desire to be a militarist or an alarmist, but merely to 
emphasise the ordinary sane and wise precaution in protect- 
ing the Philippine Islands, which we have taken under our 
jurisdiction, and to safeguard our Asiatic commerce, which 
would be almost destroyed, in case of war, if the Philippines 
were lost to us. Proper preparedness would also tend to 
safeguard the peace and security of the whole world. 


TO2 Jere EAN 


President Coolidge, in his message of December 6, 1923, 
has well said: ‘“We want no more war. But we want no 
weakness that invites imposition. A people who neglect their 
national defense are putting in jeopardy their national honor.” 

Industrialism versus Militarism. ‘The real cure for 
Japan’s troubles is industrialism. Germany, in 1870, was 
losing tens of thousands of immigrants to the United States. 
But after her era of industrialism began, she herself actually 
attracted immigrants, and her population grew from less than 
50,000,000 to 68,000,000, with an enormous increase of gen- 
eral prosperity, which would have continued, if her impe- 
rialistic designs had not plunged the world into war. Japan 
has now an area five times as large as that which she possessed 
in 1894, and already governs 67,000,000 of non-Japanese, 
and has abundant room into which her surplus population 
can overflow. 

Japan itself has about 56,000,000 inhabitants. During 
1923 there was a net increase of 733,362. Its birth rate is 
34.96 per thousand, the highest of any country keeping vital 
statistics. Its death rate is also the highest, being 22.78. 

Japan, however, has not availed herself of the opportuni- 
ties to send surplus population to some of her newly acquired 
territory. Manchuria has only 122,000 Japanese, and is 
very sparsely populated. China has in recent years sent a 
hundred emigrants there to Japan’s one. ‘The difficulty is, 
that Japan is really a very poor coloniser, from the fact that 
the Japanese do not care to settle in a country that is un- 
developed. They are perfectly willing to migrate to Hawaii 
or California, where markets are already established and 
where tempting wages are immediately paid. 

The result is that Japan’s plea regarding the necessity of 
making provision for surplus population does not seem to 
be justified by the result. During the last ten years, in spite 
of her large recently-acquired territory, not a quarter of a 
million of emigrants have left Japanese shores. In other 
words, ten years of emigration have not taken care of one- 
half year’s increase in population. 


SHINTOISM 103 


JAPANESE RELIGIONS 


Shintoism. This is the earliest religion of Japan. The 
name means the “way of the gods” or “the divine way.” 
Its basis is Animism, giving divine personality to sun, moon, 
stars, thunder, lightning, and other forces of nature. 

Shintoism has ceased to be the nature worship of primi- 
tive times, but it still has basic conceptions of the divinity 
of natural forces. It has found its larger development, how- 
ever, in Mikado worship, ancestor worship and Japan wor- 
ship. 

Every emperor is regarded as divine while living, and at 
his death he takes his place in the Pantheon of the Japanese 
deities, all of whom are objects of special worship, and the 
objects of some delightful legends. Americans have some- 
thing akin to this feeling when they stand at the tombs of 
Washington and Lincoln, except that we do not ascribe 
divinity to them. the Roman Catholic Church comes still 
nearer to this conception in its prayers to the saints for their 
intercessory offices. Amaterasu, the sun goddess, whose 
shrine at Yamada is the principal objective for sacred pil- 
_ grimage, is the chief divinity. Scholars are not permitted to 
raise scientific questions regarding her. “She,” in some mys- 
terious way, is the ancestress of the Imperial house of Japan. 

The Imperial leader of the New Japan, Mutsuhito, who 
died in 1912, having reigned forty-four years, is especially 
held in worshipful reverence. General Nogi, the military 
hero of the Russo-Japanese war, and his wife who together 
committed harikiri (suicide) at the death of the Emperor, 
also have a high place and are held in worshipful honour. 
The belief is that the spirits of emperors and ancestors are not 
only living, but are guiding the mundane people in all the 
affairs of daily life. ‘They must, however, be honoured, and 
hence, the first morning rite is to set food before their shrines 
in every home, whether it be palace or hut. 

With ancestor worship goes a close association between 
the past and the present, and between the dead and the living. 


104 JAPAN 


It expresses itself in the Buddhist Festival of departed spir- 
its; in the worship at Shinto shrines as a memorial of the 
departed; in the care of family altars and ancestral tablets; 
in the conscientious observances of the anniversary of deaths; 
in the painstaking care of graves; and in the widespread be- 
lief that the departed are present and share in all family and 
national festivals. 

In other words, the Shinto religion has become an abso- 
lutely nationalistic ideal. It is a revived form of the Bush- 
ido, the loyalties of the old-time code of the samurai, which, 
however, was the ideal of a class in which the common people 
had no part. Even today all Imperial and state rites are 
performed according to the time-honoured rules of this na- 
tionalistic Shintoism. Perhaps this is the reason why Japan’s 
ideal is so purely national, and why the rights of other nations 
receive so little consideration. 

The moral teaching of Shintoism is “Be pure in heart and 
body,” but this means merely acting out one’s natural im- 
pulses. It inculcates industry and bodily cleanliness. “There 
is, however, no sense of sin, no consciousness of striving for 
ideals. It regards people as naturally virtuous, in view of 
their descent from the gods and makes every one’s conscience 
his only guide. It has no founder, no theology (although 
the idea of the immortality of the soul is fundamental), no 
theory of the universe, no sacred writings, and no authority 
upon which to base any system of morality. It is a modi- 
fied Confucianism without the ethical element. ‘The spirit- 
ual element, which it lacks, was supplied by Buddhism. 

‘The temples are always of wood, their distinguishing ar- 
chitectural feature being the immense curved gable roofs, 
supported by great columns. ‘The torii is the outer gateway 
entrance to a Shinto temple, although it has also been adopted 
by Buddhists in a modified form. It is a distinctively national 
structure with its two columns and two Upward-carvine 
cross-pieces. 

Next comes a large inner gate usually painted red, gata 
by two figures spoken of as Ni-o, or Deva kings, whose hid- 


ah 





MINIATURE SHRINE 
CARRIED BY A 
BEGGAR 


GRAVE WITH TABLETS AND FOOD OFFERINGS 


BUDDHISM 10s 


eous grimacing faces and threatening gestures are supposed to 
drive away demons. As the worshipper enters, he throws 
little spitballs of paper at the kings, at the same time mak- 
ing a wish. If the paper goes through the meshes of wire 
that surround the figure, the wish will come true. 

In some parts of Japan, little pieces of paper with incan- 
tations written upon them, are hung from the roofs of houses 
to exorcise evil spirits. “Two guardian Fu dogs with curly 
tails, the one with his mouth open and the other having it 
shut, are distinguishing features of these temples. 

‘Then come a flight of stairs, a balcony and then the large 
inner temple with matting on the floor and an altar, in the 
middle of which is a large bronze vase containing pieces 
of gold paper, supposed to be a means of purification. A 
mirror, which is always a feature of the Temple, is believed 
to reflect the face of the worshipper to the deity. But the 
mirror is never visible except to the priest, and the whole 
conception is symbolical of purity and truth. In addition 
to the mirror, there is an ancient sword whose silken wrap- 
pings are removed only by the most august personages, the 
one at the Ise Shrine at Yamada being uncovered only by 
the Emperor himself. 

Shintoism is a religion without art, doctrines or morality. 
In reality it is a “religion without religion.” Shintoism has, 
however, had some interpreters from whose writings one 
can glean excellent precepts, such as “Learn to stand in awe 
of the Unseen, and that will prevent you from doing wrong.” 
“Cultivate the conscience implanted in you, then you will 
never wander from the Way.” 

Buddhism. Buddhism has elaborate temple structures, 
a varied ritual and a rather extensive moral code, and it em- 
phasises mercy and the sparing of life. It has enriched Japan 
with the art of India, Korea and China. 

All Buddhists believe in reincarnation. Life is a struggle 
until souls merge into the divine. ‘The great ideal is to be 
absorbed into Nirvana, ‘‘as a dewdrop sinks into the shining 
sea.’ ‘The summary of Buddhism under the later caption 


106 JAPAN 


of Religions of China and also of Ceylon, will give a fuller 
statement of its teachings. 

Buddhism in Japan has absorbed the Shinto gods, and has 
become pessimistic and degenerate, thereby fast losing its 
hold upon the educated classes. It still has an esthetic claim, 
as the Buddhist temples are so rich in marvellous carvings, 
artistic decorations and lacquer work. 

Worshippers entering a temple draw near to the shrine, on 
which is shown the image of the special deity which the tem- 
ple features, first throwing a coin into the treasury,—some- 
times the smallest of copper coins, worth about one-twentieth 
of an American cent. He then rings a bell or strikes a gong 
and clasps his hands to attract the attention of the divinity. 
Then he clasps his palms together, bows his head, expresses 
his prayerful wish and his worship is concluded. 

Buddhism, however, has developed many new modern 
features since coming into competition with Christianity, evi- 
denced by a spirit of service and a desire to give spiritual 
and material help, by the establishing of educational and 
philanthropic work, and by the educating of its priesthood. 
It has a vastly higher standard of intellectual and religious 
life, than Buddhism has in China or Ceylon, but it never- 
theless still uses terrorism and devil images. 

The strange contrast is evident between the practical mind 
of the Japanese and their swift grasp of the essence of scien- 
tific industrial methods, and their mystical adherence to the 
primitive conceptions of religion. 

While Japan has had a very intense nationalistic spirit 
and has clung tenaciously to all its old forms and traditions, 
the Buddhist and Shinto religions, which are largely unified, 
have lost much of their influence over the people. European 
books, literature, schools, hospitals, science, commerce and 
even ideals have rapidly taken the place of the old methods, 
in spite of the desire of the Japanese to maintain the in- 
tegrity of their national customs and ideals. 

All religion, except ancestor worship, is going into “in- 
nocuous desuetude” in modern Japan, and this makes its ap- 


Gaek STAN LT Y: 107 


peal to the national consciousness, rather than to a sense of 
religious need. 

Although Buddhism is the state religion (the Shinto 
temples also being recognised), they are as a whole much 
reduced in revenues and consequently have a diminishing 
number of priests and nuns and daily worshippers. 

Shintoism, after all, is scarcely a religion, but a mere mix- 
ture of the primitive ideas of nature and ancestor worship. 
Buddhism is negative and pessimistic, and is not in accord 
with the buoyant and progressive spirit which the Japanese 
have developed. ‘The Japanese mind is intensely efficient 
and is attracted to things that are positive, constructive and 
optimistic. While the Buddhist priests have endeavoured to 
take up the methods of the Christian missionaries, and have 
adopted the ideas of Sunday schools, young people’s societies 
and methods for social betterment, they have scarcely known 
how to make these effective. 

Christianity. ‘There has recently been a new interest in 
Christianity aroused in Japan. ‘The Bible Societies there 
have not been able to print Bibles fast enough. ‘They are 
in demand not only by the 200,000 Christians, but by the 
thinking people of Japan, who are becoming interested in 
the simple and ethical character of the Christian religion. 

In 1920, there were 133,000 Protestant Church members 
and 76,000 Roman Catholics, and the Japanese contributed 
$750,000 for general religious purposes. “The fact that a 
Christian is now the civil Governor of Korea indicates the 
trend of religious thought. 

Although twenty Protestant denominations are active in 
Japan, they work together in great harmony, ignoring any 
credal differences, setting the pace for all Japan in educa- 
tional and medical work. 

The Japanese Constitution guarantees religious freedom, 
so long as the activities of any religion do not interfere with 
the public peace and order. Japan herself assumes no relig- 
ious responsibility, all government education being strictly 
secular. 


108 JAPAN 


Still, Christianity suffers certain handicaps. Shintoism 
and Buddhism are backed by the gifts and endowments of the 
“vested interests.” Shinto shrines are built and repaired, and 
its priests largely supported, by the Government. ‘The 
Church property of Christians gets no such recognition, in 
fact, while Shinto and Buddhist Church property is not 
taxed, Christian Churches and institutions are charged taxes 
just as are private houses and estates. Although officially 
recognised as a religion, Christianity has no financial or legal 
status, 


JAPANESE CHARACTER IS Cite 
AND CUB T.OiNES 


The Japanese are thrifty, law abiding, industrious, pa- 
tient, polite end cheerful, devoted to their families, lovers of 
education, capable of scientific training, and having an alert 
mentality. Many Americans have gotten a very unfortu- 
nate impression of the Japanese, due to the problem that he 
constitutes in the West among the labourers, farmers and 
fruit growers, and also due to the Imperialist political ideals 
of his Government. One needs to see the native Japanese in 
his own environment; picturesquely garbed; toiling cheer- 
fully over his few acres; merrymaking in the open on one 
of his holidays or feast days, or at one of the flower festi- 
vals; spoiling his round-faced, almond-eyed little boys and 
girls whom he adores;—and thus get an entirely different 
picture of him, and one perhaps much nearer to the truth. 

The Oriental is always a little mysterious to the Occiden- 
tal. We feel a certain inscrutability about him. He has none 
of our bluff heartiness. His very politeness seems a bit dan- 
gerous to us. But the Japanese is really and truly polite, 
consistently so, polite to his friends, to his enemies, even 
polite to his own family! Good manners are assiduously 
cultivated ; there is a code of etiquette for every possible occa- 
sion, which it is a part of his education to know. 

Adaptability. It has been said of the Japanese that 
they are “great in little things and little in great things.” 


moat FESTIVITIES 109 


Everything in Japan is on a small scale; the people themselves 
are small, they live in little houses, cultivate little farms, 
engage in little enterprises, write little poems, have a sense 
for the exquisite and dainty in art and architecture, rather 
than for the great and magnificent. 

But in recent years, they have shown a real capacity for 
handling things on a big scale in business and in national 
life, for they are very imitative, and quick to learn from 
example and training. Perhaps they are more imitative than 
original, for in ancient times they derived their religion, 
literature and arts from China, through Korea, and in mod- 
ern times they have absorbed the civilisation of the West, 
without making any great contributions to it. ‘They are, 
however, clever in adapting alien things to their own uses, 
and are not mere slavish imitators. Their minds seem 
weaker in abstract logic, and reasoning, and stronger in 
observation and assimilation, so that they turn readily and 
successfully to scientific pursuits. “They lack mechanical 
initiative, but are able to copy the most technical machinery, 
even constructing and equipping great battleships in the im- 
mense Osaka shipyards. 

Simple Joys. Their simplicity is charming; they de- 
light in simple forms of natural beauty, such as going to see 
the plum trees in blossom, or romancing about the moon. 
Those who live with them say, that they get more solid 
joy out of life than do any other people, due in part to the 
fact that they are care-free, even to excess. “They never 
worry, are excessively fatalistic, stoical in the face of joy or 
sorrow, the expression ‘‘Shikata gana’”—‘“There is no help” 
being the stereotyped form of expression in the face of ca- 
lamity. ‘They seem to have no nerves. 

Festivals. ‘There never was a nation with so many fes- 
tivals on its calendar, and never were there people any more 
merry, vivacious and pleasure loving. ‘They have festivals 
for every possible occasion,—in honour of the accession of the 
old Emperor, the establishment of the New Empire, the 
deaths of Imperial ancestors and various important people, 


110 JAPAN 


fruit festivals, flower festivals, a festival of the star Vega, 
a dolls’ festival for the little girls, and a kite festival for the 
little boys. Sometimes they reckon their holidays on both 
the old and the new calendars, thus doubling the number. 
There are, in addition, the religious holidays, both Shinto 
and Buddhist; numerous local shrines must be duly cele- 
brated, and the people flock to the temples, to “worship” for 
a few minutes, and then they frolic and picnic the rest of 
the day. ‘There are now the Christian Sundays and holidays 
to be observed as well! 

Contradictory Elements. ‘They are an unselfish and 
generous people, even yet little spoiled by modern material- 
ism and industry. Oddly enough, with all their devotion 
to the new economic life of their country, they are not es- 
sentially a good business people. In olden times, the business 
man stood lowest in the social scale, below the soldier, the 
farmer and the artisan, and perhaps the reason why the Jap- 
anese is often accused of being dishonest in business, is that 
according to the old code of ethics, the business men were 
held in lowest esteem by the community. “They are also 
accused of fickleness, in that they can adopt, and then aban- 
don, ideas and systems so readily, but this is really a part of 
their alertness and curiosity. A growing steadfastness of pur- 
pose, however, is evident in the nation. 

Two Types. ‘There are two distinct types of Japanese, 
the oval-faced, narrow-eyed, aristocratic class, who are com- 
paratively few in number, and the full-faced, full-eyed, flat- 
nosed people, who make up the great mass of the population. 
But if these people are not so aristocratic as their superiors, 
they have the advantage of rugged, strong constitutions, due 
to their active lives in the open, while the upper class has 
inherited weak constitutions, due to the inactive lives of their 
ancestors. On the whole, the people are subject to early 
maturity and early decay. 

The moral and social ideals of the Japanese are still 
quite low, although in these matters they may be said to be 
unmoral rather than immoral. Every city has its extensive 


PpaepOUR PROBLEMS 111 


Yoshiwara quarters. In the Korean capital of Seoul, five 
per cent. of the entire Japanese population are women who 
live in its 134 brothels. The Japanese who leave Japan do 
not become farmers or even workers, but they are, to a large 
extent, small traders and shop keepers and very often para- 
sites of the brothel business. In every form of farming, 
manual labour or trade, the Chinese are vastly superior to 
the Japanese. 

The Ainu are the indigenous population, somewhat as 
the American Indians are in our country. ‘They are often 
called the “hairy Ainu,” their bodies being covered almost as 
with fur. ‘They have no Mongolian characteristics what- 
ever, having good features and a dignified manner, but ap- 
parently they have little initiative and rather a dull men- 
tality, and they avoid even the most casual association with 
their Japanese conquerors. 

The Eta are a despised and outcast class, who are the 
butchers, leather workers, the menders of clogs and the gen- 
-eral scavengers. “They are compelled to live in separate com- 
munities and dare not enter the homes even of the poorest 
Japanese. ‘There are fully 1,200,000 of these, mostly in the 
section of Kobe and Kyoto, about 80,000 being within im- 
mediate reach of Kyoto. ‘Their isolation and lack of educa- 
tional opportunities, together with their social ostracism, 
have made them a degenerate type. The beggars and crim- 
inals are largely recruited from them. 


BDABOUR CONDITIONS 


In the last decade, there has been a powerful democratic 
upheaval, which the Government is trying in vain to sup- 
press. ‘There is a law involving a penalty of imprisonment 
for organising unions and engaging in strikes, but this has 
ceased to be enforced, and strikes have become quite frequent. 
There are three hundred organisations with 365,700 mem- 
bers, one federation alone having fifty thousand. ‘They have, 
however, no funds and no legal status or redress. “The legal 
working day is twelve hours. 


112 PA Peay: 


The Imperial Diet in March, 1925, removed property 
restrictions, and this enlarged the manhood suffrage to eleven 
million. At the same time they raised the voting age to 
thirty years, so as to check the power of the radical young 
student element. ‘This, however, puts a strong weapon into 
the hands of labour. 

In 1883, there were 125 modern factories, but by 1923 
there were over 30,000, employing more than two million 
men and women, besides 1,400,000 children, nearly half of 
them girls, 

Altogether in Japan there are 1,600,000 women in domes- 
tic service, 1,250,000 in factories, and 1,200,000 in business. 
Women do a very considerable part of the heavy farm and 
general labouring work, for which they get 75 sen (about 38 
cents) a day. Men labourers get considerably higher wages, 
and plasterers earn two yen, or a dollar a day. Women do 
not have the same legal status and privileges as do the men, 
and there is much agitation for women suffrage. 

The rikisha, literally a pull-man car, was invented by a 
missionary, in order that he might take around with him his 
invalid wife. There were before the earthquake about 
35,000 in Tokyo alone, each with its kurumaya, or human 
horse. 

One-fifth of the farm lands are devoted to the culture of 
rice, the crops having been practically doubled in the last 
thirty-five years. 

Japan, in her industrial life, is repeating all the mistakes 
of the Occident, which we have gradually and painfully 
been unlearning,—cheap labour, the twelve and fourteen 
hour day, child labour, slums, and sweat shops. Between 
1909 and 1919 wages increased 227 per cent., while the cost 
of living increased 320 per cent., so that while the rich have 
become vastly richer, especially those who were engaged in 
the recent manufacture of war materials, the poor have 
become poorer. 

There is much complaint about the high cost of living | 
and the wretched conditions of the city sewers and the poor 


POSIT NESS METHODS 1123 


postal, telegraph and telephone systems, which are due, ac- 
cording to report, to graft and bureaucratic red tape. 

The sudden display of the nouveau riche since the war 
has begun to awaken wide discontent among the masses. In 
Tokyo in 1914, there were only twenty-two people who 
declared annual incomes as high as 100,000 yen. In 1918, 
there were 336, even though the tax appraisals have been 
conspicuously lax. Yet it must be said that the great mass 
of the people of Japan are farmers, who are less affected 
by these movements, and it is hard for the city workers to 
arouse sentiment in these matters, 


BUSINESS METHODS 


It should be remembered that the Japanese manufacturer 
always has the advantage in world trade. Government- 
owned railroads and a subsidised merchant marine are always 
behind him, and the Government usually stands ready, espe- 
cially when foreign trade is the objective or when foreign 
competition must be met, to advance money at nominal in- 
terest. “The American manufacturer is really competing 
with the Japanese Government, which recognises that by 
such subsidising, it not only encourages commerce, but makes 
every Japanese trader and merchant, both at home and in 
other lands, a centre of almost fanatical co-operation with 
his government, giving information along political, as well 
as industrial, lines. As a matter of mutual advantage, there- 
fore, the Government will favour Japanese manufacturers 
by subsidies and rebates, and by quick railroad and steam- 
ship service, while at the same time foreign goods are suf- 
fering a ruinous delay. On this account the trade in build- 
ing materials, cotton goods, silk manufacture and steel prod- 
ucts, are almost monopolised by Japan in her Asiatic trade. 

The Nippon Yusen Kaisha in November, 1919, paid a 
dividend of 100 per cent. on its stock for the preceding six 
months. This enables the Government to make large levies 
in the way of taxes upon this “infant industry” which it 


T14 Da ey 


generously subsidised in its early ventures. ‘The ship sub- 
sidy game is played better in Japan than it is in the United 
States. Japan, in 1921, had 6,094 merchant steamers ag- 
gregating 3,206,125 tons gross. 

Unfortunately for himself and his customers, the Japanese 
manufacturer does not concern himself so much with fur- 
nishing goods, that are up to the sample, as he does in get- 
ting the business. He does not hesitate to refuse to fill an 
order which has been agreed upon, if a change of value 
means loss or negligible profits. He does not hesitate to 
ignore patents and trade marks (even going so far as to 
issue goods stamped with the American name and maker), 
nor in substituting inferior goods and giving short weight. 

The story that Chinese are used in banks. because the 
Japanese employés are too dishonest, has little foundation in 
fact. The Japanese are very slow with complicated figures 
and hence the Chinese, who have almost an uncanny men- 
tality for mathematics, are in great demand. Dishonesty is 
not a national characteristic. “Travellers, stopping in Japa- 
nese hotels or in general travel, rarely have anything stolen. 


THE JAPANESE LOVE SOR 
425.T HE Do 


Flowers. ‘The Japanese have a passion for flowers and 
bring them to a high degree of perfection. ‘There are 3,200 
species of flowering plants in Japan. 

First come the white plum blossoms, the harbinger of 
spring, often appearing so early, that occasionally they are 
covered by an ephemeral snow. ‘They are specially admired 
for being so hardy, symbolising a righteous life under ad- 
versity. 

Then follow in seasonal order, cherry, wistaria, azalea, 
iris, peony, lotus, chrysanthemum and the camelia. 

The cherry is the king of flowers, symbol of vitality and 
exuberance, suggestive of the fecundity of the Japanese peo- 
ple. During cherry blossom time, the Japanese are at their 


STAIRS IN A JAPANESE GARDEN 
PRIVATE GARDEN 








JAPANESE GARDENS 115 


gayest, Riciratteathe event with processions and feasts and 
pleasure boats. As a Japanese has put it, ““When the trees 
flower, it is as if fleeciest masses of cloud, faintly tinged by 
the sunset, had floated down from the highest sky to fold 
themselves about the branches.” | 

For that matter, we have introduced the cherry blossom 
time, in part, into our own country. ‘Through the kindness 
of the Mayor of Tokyo, three or four miles of cherry trees 
have been planted along the speedway in Washington, D. C., 
and a considerable number are planted along Riverside 
Drive in New York, one of which, presented by Li Hung 
Chang, was planted, at his request, near General Grant’s 
tomb, as a memorial. ‘There are three hundred varieties 
in Japan, and twenty-five have been transplanted to Wash- 
ington and Maryland, and it has been proved that they 
flower as well there as in Japan itself. 

Wistaria of rare length and profusion abounds, such as is 
seen in no other country, the Japanese often enriching its 
roots with rice wine. The iris, whose bulbs are shipped all 
over the world, is also one of the favourite flowers. 

' The peony, sometimes nine inches in diameter, is called 
the plant of “twenty days” because by care it can be kept 
fresh for that period. ‘There are eighty varieties of peonies 
grown. It is supposed to have medicinal properties. 

The lotus is the flower reserved for funerals and sacred 
ceremonies. It is distinctively the Buddhist symbol. It 
grows profusely on the castle moats at Tokyo and in all 
pools and lakes. 

The chrysanthemum, next to the cherry blossom, is the 
delight of the Japanese, and appeals strongly to their artistic 
and zsthetic sense. It is the flower on the crest of the Em- 
peror. It is the “long-lasting” plant and the Japanese make 
chrysanthemum time a festive season. It is mentioned by 
Confucius and has been cultivated in China for 2,500 years, 
and in Egypt a thousand years earlier. It is a natural 
emblem of the sun and is most significant, as the Emperor 
is supposedly descended from the sun goddess, and, in a 


116 JAPAN 


lesser way, all Japanese are children of the sun. It is a 
favourite name for Japanese maidens. A single plant some- 
times grows a thousand flowers. 

Dwarf trees are produced by an annual cutting of the 
roots, leaving just enough to sustain life. “They are grown 
in boxes with removable sides, so that the tree will be dis- 
turbed as little as possible. ‘The Japanese gardeners prac- 
tise both root and branch pruning, changing the character 
of the earth from time to time. If branches grow too much 
on one side the roots are trimmed on that same side. “They 
can dwarf every kind of tree, as well as vines and plants. 
‘They can make tiny trees, an inch high, on miniature land- 
scapes two inches long which are perfectly exquisite, and 
gnarled plum trees, several hundred years old, only a few 
inches tall. 

The Geisha Girl is merely a waitress of an artistic de- 
sign, combining dancing and singing functions with the 
serving of tea, appearing in showy silks and marvellous 
coronets of hair. Usually, her coiffure is her principal ad- 
junct, as much in evidence in dancing as is a fan and her 
ravishing obi. She belongs to a class that dates back seven 
centuries, when they were first introduced by the Shoguns 
to lend grace and piquancy to banquets. ‘They represent a 
combination of youth, beauty, song, wit and colour, as well 
as the poetry of motion in the chaste forms of dancing, but 
unfortunately they have sometimes, although not always, 
degenerated into immorality. “The Spider Dance, the Har- 
vest Dance, the Lion Dance, and many others, represent a 
story set symbolically, the dances carrying out the idea in 
pantomime. “The dance includes advancing, retiring, wheel- 
ing, rising, kneeling, posturing, and graceful gliding, the 
group acting together with marvellous precision. Solos and 
choruses are meanwhile sung with rather shrill, metallic 
voices. A few marry, and the rest are lost to view, as ex- 
pressed in the Japanese saying, ‘““Ask as well whither goes 
the autumn leaf or last year’s fans.” 

The No Plays and the No Dances are the classic product 


KAMAKURA 117 


of Japan, given on great patriotic occasions and celebrations 
or during a classic revival, somewhat as the Shakespearean 
drama or Miracle Play is given in this country. ‘The mod- 
ern theatre has little in common with this ancient classi- 
cism, which holds an important place in the education of 
the young Japanese, who are supposed to be saturated 
with the poetry and song, as college students in the days 
of classic studies were supposed to be imbued with the 
spirit of the plays of Sophocles and Euripides. 

Two hundred and thirty-five lyric and dramatic episodes, 
some of them distinctly humorous in their motif, comprise 
the No collection, and they go back to the beginning of the 
fifteenth century, a hundred years before the time of Shake- 
speare and the Elizabethan playwrights. “They were largely 
written by Buddhist monks, and are based on ancient fables 
and traditions, in which warriors and heroic deeds have a 
signal place, with didactic moralising strongly emphasised. 

‘There are no women actors in Japanese theatres, as their 
acting is forbidden by law, men being accustomed to imper- 
sonate women in plays calling for women characters. 


KAMAKURA 


Kamakura, fourteen miles southwest of Yokohama, was 
once a capital of Japan, with nearly a million souls. It is 
now only a little summer resort, which has a world-famous 
Daibutsu, several good beach hotels, some cosy villas, several 
shrines, and beautiful mountain top views. "The town was 
badly shaken by the earthquake, but has been rapidly recon- 
structed. 

The Daibutsu, or Big Buddha, set in a flower-embowered 
park of plum trees overlooking the lovely Sagami Bay, was 
twisted and cracked. It will cost $10,000 to repair. ‘Tidal 
waves, centuries ago, destroyed the two temples which have 
housed it, but the statue itself has stood since 1252. It isa 
mammoth figure of Amida, or Buddha, and is the largest 
bronze casting in existence, its outer plates being one inch 


118 3 JAPAN 


in thickness. It has a distinctly Hindu type of face, and the 
expression is majestic, calm and peaceful, and suggests 
absorbed meditation. 

This announcement is posted at the gate: “Stranger, 
whosoever thou art and whatsoever be thy creed, when thou 
enterest this sanctuary, remember that thou treadest upon 
ground hallowed by the worship of ages. “This is the “Tem- 
ple of Buddha and the Gate of the Eternal, and should be 
entered with reverence.” 

Buddha, sitting in state upon a lotus flower, reaches a 
height of forty-nine feet, seven inches, the circumference 
being ninety-seven feet. Its eyes are of pure gold, and the 
embossed circle on its forehead, measuring fifteen inches in 
diameter, contains thirty pounds of pure silver. The 830 
curls on its head, each nine inches high, represent the snails 
which, according to the legend, crawled on his head to shelter 
the bald surface from the sun’s rays. ‘The statue weighs 
450 tons. ‘There are two bronze lotus plants, each fifteen 
feet high, on either side of the statue. 

The visitor can enter the interior through an orifice in 
the right side of the lotus blossom pedestal, and can climb 
up an inside ladder to its shoulders, where two small win- 
dows are placed. “Iwo diminutive Amidas are found in the 
interior. 

The Hachiman Shrine, dedicated to the God of War, 
and the Temple of Hase-no-Kwannon, the Goddess of 
Mercy, have attraction and were favourite haunts of religious 
pilgrims before the earthquake. She figures largely in Jap- 
anese art, sometimes being represented as having eleven faces 
and a thousand hands, and is always smiling with tenderness. 
The Japanese idealise her, much as Christians do the Virgin 
Mary, 


YOKOHAMA 


Yokohama was almost entirely destroyed by earthquake 
and fire, only a few scattered houses in the outskirts remain-. 


TOKYO 119 


ing intact, and it ceased to be Kobe’s closest competitor as 
a commercial port. The harbour is, however, so large and 
the proximity to Tokyo so important, that the city is grad- 
ually being rebuilt, and in the course of a decade will largely 
resume its former commercial importance. Naturally, the 
former places of sightseeing interest have all disappeared, 
and Yokohama in the future will merely serve as a gateway 
to Tokyo, 


MeO Kay.O 


Tokyo began its influential history in 1603, when the 
greatest of shoguns, Iyeyasu, with a following of 80,000, 
made Yedo,—as it was then called, his residential quarters. 
‘That was seventeen years before the Pilgrim Fathers landed 
in Plymouth. 

When Admiral Perry made his historic visit in 1853, 
Yedo was still the city of power in Japan. In 1869, the 
Shogunate came to an end, and the Emperor now being for 
the first time in control after having been a figure-head for 
centuries, moved his capital from Kyoto to Yedo, its name 
at that time being changed to Tokyo, the word meaning the 
“Eastern Capital.” 

Since then western scientific and financial methods, com- 
mercial developments, industrial activities and modern im- 
provements generally, have been growing at a crescendo 
rate. During the World War immense fortunes were made, 
and new processes and buildings for manufacturing were in- 
troduced, fashioned after western models. ‘Tokyo has be- 
come the social, intellectual and financial centre of Japan, 
while Osaka is the great manufacturing “Pittsburgh.” 

Most buildings, however, at the time of the earthquake, 
were still of wood, less than 10,000 in Tokyo being of con- 
crete, stone or brick, with a very limited number of steel 
structures. ‘I‘wo-thirds of Tokyo (366,262 structures) 
was burned at the time of the earthquake. 

It should be remembered that Tokyo, at the time of the 


120 TPA 


earthquake, was still quite primitive, it being largely sewer- 
less and its roads during rains becoming a quagmire of mud. 
Much improvement has been under way, and the lesson of 
the destruction will doubtless tend to the construction, as far 
as possible, of fireproof and quakeproof buildings. The new 
street plan provides for twelve main avenues, centring 
around the Imperial Palace, having a width of from 135 to 
270 feet. Under the new plan the city has decided to take 
as much as IO per cent. of privately owned lands, giving 
compensation for that taken in excess of this proportion. 
The buildings in the business section will be restricted to a 
height of one hundred feet, and to three stories in residential 
quarters. Most of the Government office buildings and 
University centres will be located in the suburbs. “The park 
acreage will be doubled, and many new canals will facilitate 
transportation and provide an unlimited water supply in 
case of fires. Already 272 new school buildings have re- 
placed the 281 destroyed. 

Results of the Earthquake. About two-thirds of 
Tokyo was destroyed by earthquake and fire, and naturally 
some of the places of exceptional interest were included in 
the obliterated section. “Those who had visited Tokyo in 
recent years will feel that the loss is almost irreparable. 

Among the places which used to charm the visitors is the 
famous Okura Museum, one of the finest collections in 
Japan; also the temple of Kwannon, the goddess of human 
kindness, in the large park with its numerous gardens and 
lakes and the surrounding ‘‘Coney Island,” filled with toy 
shops, tea houses, moving picture theatres and holiday attrac- 
tions. “The Theatre Street as well as the Ginza, which was 
the main shopping street; the Imperial ‘Theatre, which cov- 
ered two acres and was one of the fine theatre structures 
of the world; the Government Buildings that made such 
an imposing array near the entrance to the Imperial Palace 
and the University of Tokyo, with the finest collection of 
educational buildings in Japan, have all disappeared. 


PORYO SIGHTSEEING t21 


Peres N lt -DAY SIGHTSEEING 


The Imperial Palace. The Palace of the Emperor has 
fortunately largely escaped the disaster, although fire de- 
stroyed some of its buildings. ‘This is at the very heart of 
Tokyo and is surrounded by a great wall which in turn is 
encompassed by a deep moat, one of several, the main one 
measuring five miles. On the walls are guard houses, their 
curved roofs making them look somewhat like small pagodas. 

After crossing a bridge over the outside moat, the way 
leads to a huge gateway which opens into a broad park lead- 
ing to another moat and wall. Crossing the second bridge, 
one enters the Imperial Palace grounds through an impos- 
ing gate, driving through extensive avenues of trees, to the 
entrance of the Palace itself. A large part of the enclosure 
is a private park with stately trees and lovely gardens. ‘The 
Palace and all the auxiliary buildings make a distinctive 
setting, because of their strictly Japanese architecture. 

A very large veranda at the Palace entrance opens into 
a great reception hall, on each side of which are broad wings 
in the old Japanese style. All the buildings are one story, 
designed in rather a simple style and decorated in wood col- 
our and white. Just beyond are corridors with glimpses of 
rooms more gorgeously decorated. 

The Emperor limits his reception to men, his guests being 
nearly always the official representatives of foreign govern- 
ments, who are received by him in a rather unpretentious 
square room. He remains standing during the visit of cere- 
mony, as does his interpreter, and his guests also make their 
official speeches standing. “The Empress, in the meantime, 
is receiving both men and women visitors in a very cordial 
way elsewhere in the Palace. All conversation with the 
Emperor or Empress must be carried on in whispers, as this 
is supposed to show special reverence. 

It should be added that it is quite impossible for travellers 
to have access to the Palace, or to gain an audience with the 


122 JAPAN 


Emperor, unless they are sent by their governments in a 
special official capacity. 

Shiba Park. ‘This is one of the largest and most popu- 
lar parks in Tokyo, where the temples and mausolea of the 
sixth, seventh and ninth Shoguns are erected. In the old 
days, a Shogun came to worship the spirits of his ancestors 
in these temples. He approached the altar alone, the 
daimyos being seated in the corridor below, while the lesser 
nobles remained in the oratory. 

In this park, covering 140 acres, a very old pagoda, a 
popular Bazaar, the famous Maple Club Restaurant and a 
charming lotus pond, are attractive features. “The mortuary 
temples of the Shoguns are entered through the gate of the 
two Deva Kings, and consist of a main temple, an oratory 
and the Shogun tomb in the background. ‘There are also 
memorial tablets of the mothers, wives and daughters of 
some of the Shoguns. 

The “Octagonal Hall,” in the Temple of the Second 
Shogun, is believed to contain the finest specimens of gold 
lacquer in existence, and the sculptures, carvings and paint- 
ings represent the choicest products of Japanese art. Here 
is also the largest bell in Tokyo, ten feet high, weighing 
fifteen tons. 

The Crown Prince’s Palace is an imposing structure, 
forming one of the landmarks of the city, and is surrounded 
by large wooded lawns. ‘This was given over to the Prince 
of Wales and his retinue, during his visit several years ago, 

and he was royally entertained. The public is not admitted. 
Ueno Park, the chief pleasure resort of the city, covers 
210 acres. Here stand various temples, as well as the Im- 
perial Museum, the Imperial Library, a very old pagoda, 
the largest lantern in Japan, the Tokyo Academy of Fine . 
Arts, the Academy of Music and other places of interest. 
These were shaken, and the large bronze Buddha, 21 feet 
high, was decapitated. ‘The statue will be recast at a cost 
of $50,000. The park is the scene of the great Cherry 
Blossom festival. 








DAIBUTSU AT KAMAKURA 


APPROACH TO TEMPLE—TORII AND LANTERNS 

















ca 


Mea UO HyliGHT SEBRING, 123 


The Imperial Museum, founded in 1881, contains a 
superb collection of exhibits connected with history, fine 
arts, industrial arts and natural history. It is one of three 
museums maintained by the Imperial Household, the others 
being at Kyoto and Nara. Here may be seen the choicest 
specimens of pottery, precious stones, fabrics, embroideries, 
silks, prints, gold lacquer, wood carving, ivory articles, tor- 
toise shell carvings, architectural models, statues, masks, 
swords, vases, bells, Buddhist instruments of worship, 
palanquins, ship models, rugs, coins, ancient furniture, ar- 
mour, musical instruments, paintings, toys and ethnological 
exhibits. All these are reported as saved, and make an exhi- 
bition too important to be missed. 

The Imperial: Library has altogether 343,755 books, 
which seem to have escaped the conflagration, but the library 
of the University of ‘Tokyo, which was completely destroyed, 
had 674,122 volumes, and was one of the notable world 
libraries. Such was the appreciation by the people of Tokyo 
of the value of this great library, that in the midst of the 
terror of earthquakes and fire, hundreds of volunteers car- 
ried these books to what was regarded as a safe place, but 
this also was later devoured by the flames, and the library 
was totally destroyed. 

The Asano Mansion. Mr. Asano, President of the 
Toyo Kisen Kisha Line to Vancouver and San Francisco, 
has a beautiful home surrounded by spacious grounds, in 
which are also located a sumptuous reception house and 
museum, which he frequently opens to tourists. On the 
occasion of a Cruise, or some exceptionally large group of 
people, he himself, with Mrs. Asano, and his two charming 
granddaughters, give a reception of welcome, on which occa- 
sions tea and Japanese sweets are served, and a souvenir 
book of views and a quaint fan are presented. Mr. Asano 
is a self-made man, having been made many times a million- — 
aire as a result of the American seamen’s law, which made 
American competition impossible, and of the high freight 
rates during the World War. 





124 JAPAN 


It is well not to presume upon the ignorance of the Eng- 
lish language, in the case of Japanese people of distinction. 
One of the American guests recently said in a very audible 
voice to his companion, in the presence of one of Mr. Asano’s 
granddaughters, that she was the prettiest girl he had ever 
seen in Japan. As this charming young lady is a graduate 
of Vassar, it goes without saying that she may have been 
rather embarrassed by such a public compliment. 

The famous Gardens of Count Matsura, which were 
laid out in the seventeenth century, may be visited only by 
special invitation. “The Arsenal Garden is also mentioned 
as being one of the finest parks in Japan. 

The Imperial Hotel was fortunate enough to escape, 
largely from the fact that it was a modern fireproof build- 
ing, although the plaster and some of the decorations suf- 
fered injury. It is a unique and artistic building, designed 
by Mr. Wright, a Chicago architect. It is in the semi-Aztec 
style, altogether un-Japanese, but quite original, the hotel 
being regarded as one of the best in Asia. 

Churches. There were 118 Christian churches and 
missionary stations in Tokyo before the earthquake, includ- 
ing fourteen Roman and Greek Catholic, with a full total 
of about 25,000 members. Many of these were destroyed, 
but with few exceptions have been rebuilt, the Protestant 
churches largely by funds raised in America. 

The Waseda Government University, founded \ 
Count Okuma in 1882, escaped the disaster. It is the largest 
in Japan, with over 10,000 students. 

Shopping. As the main shopping streets in Tokyo were 
obliterated, it may be less desirable to do shopping here. At 
the same time, many shops have been rebuilt, and they natu- 
rally need the patronage of tourists, See also page 143. 


NIKKO 


Nikko, a town of 10,000 people, is ninety-one miles north 
of Tokyo, with an altitude of 1,714 feet above the sea, and 


NIKKO 125 


is on 4 small rushing stream called Daiya. The very name 
of Nikko means “sunny splendour.” The Japanese speak 
of it as “The climax of Japanese wonders set among moun- 
tains of the sun’s brightness.” A proverb is current in 
Japan, “Do not use the word ‘magnificent’ till you have 
seen Nikko.” ‘There is here a combination of nature and 
art, that is unique even for picturesque Japan. In the early 
Spring, the snow covering the mountain tops gives a crown- 
_ ing beauty to the picture, and by April and May there is a 
vivid verdure and a wealth of floral adornment. 

While Nikko is an unimportant town, as far as its people 
and business interests are concerned, it represents the crys- 
tallised civilisation of Japan during the last 300 years. 

Here in this hillside glory are set Nikko’s famous tem- 
ples, as well as the mausoleum of the greatest of Shoguns, 
Iyeyasu, the founder of the Tokugawa Dynasty three hun- 
dred years ago,—all encircled with the radiant corona of 
history, art, architecture, philosophy, and religion, making 
Nikko seem almost like another world. 

The whole mountain side is clustered with temples, 
pagodas, lanterns, shrines, torii, and mausolea, all being re- 
splendent with the highest development of Japanese art, 
rising higher and higher until at the very summit is the 
simple tomb of the Napoleon of Japan. 

Over 6,000 men, who represented the best artists and 
craftsmen of Japan during a period of twelve years, were 
required to carry out this stupendous plan. ‘The cost was 
over ten millions of dollars, and it is a question whether it 
could be now reproduced, if at all, for $50,000,000. 

The whole sweep of the horizon, one of the most charm- 
ing views in Japan, may be had from a tea house on top of 
the hill behind the Kanaya Hotel. 

Crossing the river Daiya is a sacred red lacquer bridge, 
eighty-three feet long and twenty-two feet wide, which is re- 
served for the exclusive use of the Emperor or great dig- 
nitaries, on the rare occasions of their going up to Nikko to 
worship at the temples. No foreigners, even the most dis- 


126 Pwo PoA 


tinguished royal visitors of Japan, have ever crossed this 
bridge. ‘The privilege was officially accorded to General 
Grant, but he had the good taste to decline the honour, 
thereby raising himself in the estimation of the Japanese, 
especially as the populace might have resented it as a 
profanation. ‘The original bridge was destroyed by a flood 
in 1902, and was rebuilt in 1906. After passing the Sacred 
Bridge, and following the road along the bank of the river 
one sees a number of stone images, representing Amida, or 
Buddha. A larger number were swept away by various 
floods, especially that of 1902, the largest of all being washed 
down to Imaichi, five miles below, arriving there in perfect 
condition. 

‘The temples are a blaze of colour and gold, with many 
overtones of colour shades which lend depth and richness, 
the heavy shadows under the enormous eaves giving softness 
to the whole effect. ‘The Pagoda, which is 105 feet high 
and 42 feet square,—one of the finest in Japan,—helps to 
give a striking setting to the group of temple structures. 

The temples are partly Shinto and partly Buddhist, hav- 
ing the torii which are distinctively Shinto, while the tem- 
ples are themselves gorgeously decorated and furnished in 
the Buddhist style. Most Japanese, indeed, combine the 
two religions in their ideas of worship. Since 1905, a great 
deal of work has been done by the Japanese Government in 
restoring these buildings, over $200,000 having been spent. 

The Iyeyasu shrines and accessory buildings, the superb 
temple giving the supreme note, rise one above another in 
graduated terraces, each with its distinctive torii, all finally 
leading up to the Tomb of the greatest of Shoguns. ‘The 
blending of park and temples makes a masterpiece of har- 
monious beauty. ‘The details of the carvings, art objects 
and architectural beauties of the Nikko temples have been 
the subject of entire volumes, and are profoundly interesting 
to students of art, casting much light upon the history and 
civilisation of Japan. 

The strange mingling of exquisite wsthetic feeling, and 


NIKKO SIGHTSEEING 127 


the richness and range of the artistic ideas represented in 
the architecture and decorations, are in strange contrast with 
the threatening dragons and grotesque Deva devils. 

The cryptomeria trees, called sugi in Japanese, are a spe- 
cies of giant cedar, often measuring eighteen to twenty-five 
feet in circumference, and rise fully 125 feet into the air 
with straight and slender grace. “They appear like solemn 
sentinels above the gorgeous temples, and have a profound 
religious significance to the Japanese. 

The story of how the trees of this templed mountainside, 
as well as the cryptomeria avenue extending for forty miles 
on the way to Nikko, came to be planted, is a most fascinat- 
ing one. During the erection of these temples, various 
chieftains, or daimyos, of Japan made generous contribu- 
tions,—generous, because the levies were enforced by the 
Shogun,—in the way of special shrines, or temple decora- 
tions. Some daimyos, however, living in the mountainous 
parts of Japan, had no money with which they could pay the 
levy, but instead brought tens of thousands of young trees, 
which their workmen planted in Nikko and its approaches, 
the work requiring twenty years. At the time, these seemed 
rather a meagre and almost contemptible gift as compared 
with the large money contributions that came from more 
opulent daimyos, but now it is evident that they presented 
the greatest largess of all. 

The deep green of the Japanese cypresses and of the 
cryptomeria, or “trees of the sun,” against the gilded bronze 
roofs of the temples, and the vivid polychrome effects of the 
pagoda, torii and shrines, make quite a ravishing picture. 
The various structures which otherwise might be somewhat 
garish, are toned down by the tall pyramidal forests. 

There are two sets of temples,—the Iyeyasu shrines, under 
the jurisdiction of a Shinto abbot, being the first ones reached 
by taking the road to the right, after leaving the sacred 
red bridge, and the series of Iyemitsu temples, under the 
jurisdiction of a Buddhist abbot, which are on the left side 
of the mountain slope. ‘The entrance fee of a yen admits 


128 JAPAN 


to both series of temples and the grounds are open from 
8 A. M. to 4 P. M. 

The purpose of the Shoguns in building these temples was 
not’ only to dazzle the daimyos by the evidences of their 
power and wealth, but also to impoverish the daimyos by 
making large financial demands upon them, so as to prevent 
them from financing rebellions. 

Iyemitsu, the son of Iyeyasu, built the first temple and 
tomb in honour of his father, and his son in turn, erected 
an almost exact duplicate for him. On these are lavished 
the rather florid artistry of this period of Japanese art, with 
its bold and vivid colouring. 

The trees seem to be loftier as the visitor ascends the 
broad, majestic avenue up the mountainside to the Iyeyasu 
shrines, and passes through the famous Yomeimon, the grey 
stately torii admitting to the successive terraces. ‘To the left 
is a five story pagoda, its black projecting roofs trimmed 
with red and gold, and the eaves with a pale verdigris green. 
In front are ascending broad stone steps and balustrades, 
leading to the Niomon gate, or gate of the two Deva Kings, 
which has dark crimson pillars and highly involved carvings 
lacquered with multitudinous colourings. 

Above the Niomon to the left, the dark grey roofs of the 
temple appear with its edges ablaze with red and gold. 
Near by are the Treasury and other secondary buildings, 
riotous with carvings and colours. In one of these are 
carved the famous monkeys of left-handed Jingoro, the 
greatest wood carver of Japan, with their hands in certain 
positions showing the safeguarding of speech, sight, and hear- 
ing. Carvings of peacocks, pheasants, and the “sleeping 
cat,”—also the work of Jingoro,—add to the decorative 
piquancy. 

The place for ablutions, where pilgrims wash lips and 
hands before entering the temple itself, is an artistic gem 
with its large granite basin, its twelve white monolith col- 
umns supporting the baldachin above, which is ornamented > 


NIKKO TEMPLES 129 


in white and black, and decorated with carved and tinted 
dragons under the eaves of its graceful roof. 

Then the visitor passes the Library of the sacred books, 
with its revolving bookcase twenty feet high, which is not 
open to visitors, and rising once more twenty-two steps, with 
crouching lions on either side, comes to the House of the 
Bell, given by Koreans, as well as the House of the Drums, 
overshadowed with cryptomerias fully twenty-five feet in 
circumference. “The Yahushi-do, having great gilded col- 
umns in arabesque carvings and colourings and the picture 
of the weeping dragon on its ceiling, is also one of the strik- 
ing features of interest. 

On the third Terrace above is the “Morning till Night 
gate,” so rarely lovely as to warrant careful study, and the 
Kazuraden (a dainty structure where a priestess gives a 
sacred dance), containing a palanquin weighing 800 pounds, 
as well as an incense hall and a storage house for religious 
accessories. 

Climbing higher still, the various stops having proved 
sufficiently restful, one comes to the Chinese Gate on the 
fourth terrace, which is the most artistic and exquisitely 
carved of all the various portals. On this terrace is the 
golden hondon or oratory, with its exquisite polychrome 
interior carvings and decorations and the glory of its artistic 
designs. 

Here are welcoming priestly attendants, and after the 
shoes are removed (sometimes also a green mantle is thrown 
over the shoulders of visitors) they lead the way through the 
outer golden hall with the rooms on either side reserved for 
the Shoguns, through the middle stone hall to the sanctum 
sanctorum, where visitors are not admitted. Priests, clad 
in striking vestments of white and pale blue, are intoning 
prayers, to the accompaniment of chanting choristers. In 
one of its rooms, the decorations and art objects are said to 
have cost a million dollars. The beautiful surroundings and 
the religious atmosphere create an irresistible solemnity, that 


130 JAPAN 


easily accounts for the profound effect upon the devout 
Japanese mind. 

Here at Nikko the religious soul of Japan becomes atune 
with the rhythmic pulsating of religious emotions. 

The Tomb of Iyeyasu, near the top of the mountain, is 
on a small terrace heavily timbered with noble trees, and 
is reached by a final climb of two hundred steps. ‘The 
tomb, containing the remains of the greatest of Shoguns, is 
eight feet high and four feet in diameter, and is guarded by 
two fierce-looking lion images. ‘The interior is richly 
decorated with more than 8,000 polychromatic flowers. 

Certain precepts of Iyeyasu are still quoted in Japan: 
“Life is a long journey with a heavy load; let thy steps be 
slow and steady that thou stumble not.” “Look upon wealth 
as thine enemy; find fault with thyself rather than with 
others.” | 

On June 2nd of each year there is a spectacular pro- 
cession commemorating the birthday of Iyeyasu, with palan- 
quins, ancient samurai costumes and armour, the festivities 
being brought to a close by a sacred dance. 

Among the accessory Iyeyasu structures are the Hall of 
the Three Buddhas, with the three immense images twenty- 
seven feet high; the “Evil-averting Pillar,’—the mystic 
Buddhist symbols whose crest is alleged to have the power 
to dispel demons; the heavily hooded pavilion with its bronze 
bell, six feet high and four feet wide, which no one is allowed 
to touch except the man who sounds the hours by it; the 
Abbot’s quaint house and lovely garden; the Museum of 
relics, rich in art and war specimens, and many other strik- 
ingly interesting objects. 

The Iyemitsu series of buildings, which occupy the left 
part of the mountainside are scarcely less attractive than 
the Iyeyasu structures, but receive less attention because 
the visitor who may spend only a day or two in Nikko be- 
comes too sated with temple splendours to fully appreciate 
them. 

Lake Chuzenji, 4,460 feet above the sea, is eleven miles 





CRYPTOMERIA AVENUE 
LEADING TO NIKKO 


SACRED BRIDGE AT NIKKO 





MIYANOSHITA,HAKONE 3131 


from Nikko crossing a summit 3,000 feet and descending 
500 feet. The Lake, which measures three by seven miles, 
with a maximum depth of 560 feet, is in the crater of an 
extinct volcano. ‘The tourist making this trip passes the 
Kegan Fall which has a sheer drop of 250 feet and has been 
a favourite spot for suicides, five having occurred in one 
week. The mountain Nantai San, 8,400 feet high, rises 
four thousand feet above the lake and at its summit is a 
shrine for pilgrims. “This Lake is a favourite summer col- 
ony for foreign legations, as the scenery is superb, the sum- 
mer climate delightful, the trout fishing excellent, and the 
Lakeside Hotel extremely comfortable. Motor launches, as 
well as sail and rowboats, are available. 

The town of Nikko extends for a long distance along a 
main thoroughfare, there being few side streets. “The shops 
have a considerable stock of Japanese goods but they are 
apt to maintain high prices. Furs, jewellery, carved wood- 
work and ivory, lacquer articles, and especially souvenir 
hand-painted photos and prints of Nikko scenes, are dis- 
tinctive. 

Visitors on leaving Nikko, should, if possible, take a 
rikisha or auto ride four miles down the cryptomeria avenue 
to the station called Imaichi, planning to catch the train 
there, instead of taking it at Nikko. ‘This ride will prove 
one of the memorable experiences of Japan. 


mre OVERLAND TRIP IN JAPAN 


Miyanoshita, one of the favourite places for stopping on 
an overland trip from ‘Tokyo to Kyoto (a distance of 340 
miles), was reached by taking the train to Odawara, and 
from there going by auto to Miyanoshita. It was a favour- 
ite summer resort before its sad and desolating visit by 
earthquake and fire, and a number of foreigners had their 
summer residence there. It is set on a bluff 1,223 feet above 
the sea, and has a sweep of superb mountainous scenery in 
almost every direction. One American who happened to be 


132 JAPAN 


in a shop in this town at the time of the earthquake, was 
instantly killed by the beams of the falling building. ‘The 
convulsion was so violent that part of the town slid down 
the precipice. 

The hotel here was particularly attractive and charm- 
ingly located, and it has been rebuilt on a more pretentious 
scale. From here there were charming automobile trips 
revealing a variety of scenic settings, including that to Lake 
Ashi, Nagas Pass and Sengkuhara, where there was a nine- 
hole golf course. 

Hakone is within an hour’s automobile ride from 
Miyanoshita and before the earthquake was one of the love- 
liest spots in Japan. The Emperor had a summer palace 
here, and the place was further made attractive by a charm- 
ing hotel and tea house, projecting over the lake, as well as 
by numerous homes of foreigners and wealthy Japanese. 
The lake in the foreground, the dark and green slopes be- 
yond, the darker volcanic rock on the slopes of Fujiyama, 
and then the white crested cone of the mountain make a 
surpassing view, although the proud goddess sometimes mod- 
estly draws her fleecy lace veil over her face. On a clear, 
quiet day, Fuji is perfectly mirrored in the placid bosom of 
the waters, making one of the most exquisite pictures to be 
found in Japan. 

‘The earthquake, however, was particularly severe in and 
around Hakone, diverting the streams and partially empty- 
ing the lake, so that it will be somewhat problematical as 
to whether it can be restored to its former prestige as a 
summer resort. It may be hoped, however, that it will 
again become a favourite place for the visitation of tourists, 
as its bracing mountain air, health-giving hot springs, de- 
lightful scenery, excellent trout fishing, with the glory of 
Fuji crowning the scene, constitute one of Japan’s greatest 
attractions. 

Fujiyama. ‘The highest mountain in Japan is Fujiyama, 
usually spoken of as “Fuji.” It is 12,387 feet high, and is 
only surpassed in altitude in Japan territory by Mount 


NOGOYA. 133 


Morrison in Formosa. It has an extraordinarily graceful 
conical shape, and appears the same from almost every point 
of the compass, and unless it should be hidden by fog or 
other mountains, is visible from any point within a radius 
of sixty miles. Its summit, which is snow-covered all the 
year, has thin wreaths of steam which are the only sign of 
its former volcanic activity. 

The mountain is held in a quasi-sacred regard. It is 
called by the Japanese the “supreme altar of the sun.” It 
is regarded a never-dying mountain, possessing the secret 
of immortality. Its springs of water are supposed to have 
healing powers, and the mere fact of climbing the mountain 
is supposed to give health and rejuvenation. ‘The fire god- 
dess ‘‘Sergen”’ is the local deity. It is accessible to climb- 
ers from five different directions and the ascent is one of the 
ambitions of progressive Japanese young people who make 
the ascent in large numbers from late July to early Sep- 
tember. “The young Crown Prince, now Regent, was one 
of the climbers in 1923. 

It is possible to see Fuji as the steamer approaches Yoko- 
hama, and at various points on the ocean route from 
Yokohama to Kobe, and it is one of the sights that always 
wins the profound admiration of travellers. The Japanese 
take every opportunity of looking at it, and they make it an 
object of reverence that is akin to worship. 

Nogoya. ‘This bustling commercial city of 429,990 in- 
habitants (1920), is specially famous for its feudal castle, 
built in 1610, which is one of the best preserved examples 
of old Japanese architecture and art. It is surrounded by 
great walls and a large deep moat. ‘The central building 
is one hundred and fifty feet high and is built in five great 
stories, averaging thirty feet in height, each floor having a 
deep inset until the top story, which is only one hundred 
and eight feet square, is reached. “The view well repays 
the ascent of the rather rude massive stairs, as it gives the 
entire sweep of the horizon, including the whole city of 
Nogoya and its surroundings. ‘The mural decorations are 


134 JAPAN 


unusually attractive, and are doubly interesting to students 
of Japanese art. 

There is little else in Nogoya that would attract special 
attention. ‘The city is famous for its fine potteries and its 
manufacture of articles for household furnishing. 


KYOTO 


Kyoto, with a population (1921) of 670,000, is three hun- 
dred and thirty miles from Tokyo and forty-seven miles 
from Kobe. It is the Rome of Japan, and its most charac- 
teristic and fascinating city. It has a scenic setting in a 
beautiful natural environment, with mountain ranges on 
three sides. Here the grand ceremonies of the Emperor’s 
coronation take place, as well as the spectacular Daijosi or 
Shinto festival. Its Buddhist and Shinto temples are among 
the most imposing and impressive in Japan. It is situated 
at a junction of several rivers, which are more or less joined 
by a series of intersecting canals. Its suburbs have excep- 
tionally attractive villas and resorts, together with a wealth 
of artistic landscape gardening. 

For a thousand years, until 1868, Kyoto was the capital 
of Japan and the centre of its art, literature and religion, 
and it still remains the artistic and ecclesiastical metropolis. 
The charm of Kyoto is subtle and irresistible, the atmos- 
phere being still touched with medizvalism, although the 
spirit of its business activities is very modern. 

From the splendid heights where the Miyako Hotel is situ- 
ated, one has a fine view of Kyoto, with mountains and hills 
girt about in impressive solicitude. ‘The places of interest 
outnumber those of all other Japanese cities. Here are the 
Temple Higashi Hongwanji, the Temple Nishi Honganji, 
the Chion-in or Temple of Gratitude, all of which are un- 
equalled in their mystery and worshipful atmosphere, al- 
though surpassed in multiplied carvings and polychrome lac- 
quer work by the Nikko temples. 

The pilgrims come to the temples, offering their momen-: 


KYOTO SIGHTSEEING 135 


tary worship, and the priests pray and chant and strike the 
immense ancient bells, giving one blow at a time and waiting 
for all echoes to cease, unless in a special emergency they 
wish to warn the populace by strokes following in rapid suc- 
cession. Outside are singing waterfalls, descending into 
great stone basins, in gardens that have been famous for 
centuries. “The temples of Japan usually cling to the hill- 
sides, and are always embowered among trees and flowering 
gardens, which are in themselves a triumph of artistic con- 
ception, having lanterns, stone bridges, small lotus lakes, 
waterfalls, fountains and mammoth trees, and are cared for 
with the greatest solicitude. Such monastic retreats as the 
Myoshin-jo and Ginkaki-ji are superb representations and 
are quite accessible. In many private house gardens, as 
well, there may be seen a shrine, a lantern and a bell, giving 
a religious setting and significance. In the gardens of the 
rich, there is often a small temple or a tiny structure for 
the sacred tea ceremony, or a small building covering the 
distinctive family shrine. 


SIGHTSEEING 


The Gosho Imperial Palace is in the centre of the Im- 
perial Park of 220 acres, the entire area being surrounded 
by a low stone wall having a tiled roof throughout its en- 
tire circumference, punctuated by nine gates. "The Palace 
itself covers twenty-six acres which in turn is encircled by 
a high wall, which indicated that it was reserved for the 
Imperial family. “The Palace was erected in 1856, several 
previous ones having been destroyed by fire. Visitors should 
remember here and elsewhere that levity is not acceptable 
in Japan, when it relates to the Emperor or the Imperial 
family. The same is true of temples and temple worship. 

Inside the Palace, a visitor is shown to the Honourable 
‘Three Rooms formerly used for the reception of dignitaries, 
the walls and sliding screens of which are decorated with 
sepia drawings. 


136 JAPAN 


The Emperor’s special quarters have ten rooms, only the 
Ceremonial Hall (Shishin-den), 100 by 72 feet, being ac- 
cessible to visitors. In this mysterious Purple Hall, the Em- 
peror on special occasions was accustomed to sit on the large 
throne chair, inlaid with mother-of-pearl, having a canopy 
of red, purple and pale fawn colours. Just outside the rooms 
usually occupied by the Emperor, there is an alarm board 
made expressly to creak whenever one steps on it, this being 
done as a matter of precaution. 

Among the other portions of the Palace are the ‘Serene 
Chamber” (Seiryoden), so-called from the small brook un- 
der the entering steps; the Imperial Study (Ogakumon-jo), 
used by small gatherings for the cultivation of poetry and 
music; the Hall of Sacred Treasures (Kashiko-dokoro), and 
the Palace of the Empress which is much like that of the 
Emperor. 

The Garden of the Sento Gosho has magnificent trees, a 
serene lake with a stone bridge and several islands,—all giv- 
ing a charming ensemble. 

The whole effect of this Palace savours of simplicity, and 
yet of stately solemnity. Even in olden times, it was mod- 
estly furnished as compared with the Nijo Shogun Castle, 
as the emperors have always lived a simple, almost monastic, 
life. 

The Shogun Castle, or Detached Palace (Nijo-Rikyu), 
built by Iyeyasu, was the treasure house of the Shoguns from 
1602, and is the greatest surviving monument of Old Japan. 
During its use from 1871 to 1884 by the Kyoto Prefecture, 
however, many of its priceless art objects and decorations 
were removed or destroyed, because the new western meth- 
ods of art and furnishings came into vogue, and the old, 
for the time, was despised. Since 1884, however, an effort 
has been made to preserve, and as far as possible, restore 
the former glory, although the Imperial crest of the chrys- 
anthemum, with sixteen petals, has been largely substituted 
for the Takugawa Shogunate crest of three asarum leaves. 


a 


Peers HT SEE IN G 137 


The interior of the Castle is still radiant with golden and 
artistic ornamentation. 

The Castle grounds, which are surrounded by a moat and 
by walls with four gates, occupy seventy acres. All visitors 
enter by the East gate, an iron-bound artistic structure, 
then through another gate elaborately carved in wood, and 
crossing a great courtyard, finally pass through the august 
entrance. 

The Castle consists of five main buildings. The first is 
the principal Palace, the largest of all, richly decorated 
throughout with paintings, the artists being the most famous 
of the Kano school. ‘The mural paintings on the sliding 
doors have large and striking designs, sketched upon a gold 
background. Each room has its own motif of design, some- 
times consisting of special species of trees,—pine, plum and 
cherry trees being the favourite,—sometimes flowers like the 
peony and the Japanese globe-flower, and sometimes animals 
such as tigers, sheep, hares and geese. 

The second building has a series of rooms with somewhat 
similar decorations, although a room of water scenes with 
white herons among the reeds, a room with a majestic lion 
whose eyes follow the visitor everywhere, and a room with 
a wild bear in a winter forest, give variety and distinctive 
interest. 

The third building has a Great Hall, where the Shogun 
was enthroned on a raised platform, while the daimyos sat 
on low stools in awed humility in the presence of their liege- 
lord. Here the decorations are pines, bamboos, peonies, 
chrysanthemums and narcissi. Another room is distinctive 
in its superb peacock perched on a pine tree, and still another 
room, among others, has eagles perched on large pine trees, 
and another has a setting of herons and geese among the 
reeds. 

‘The fourth building, while smaller, has a brilliantly dec- 
orated reception room, and it, together with three other 
rooms, are rich in fishing scenes, melons, flowers, and a 
variety of birds. 


138 JAPAN 


The fifth building was the private apartment of the 
Shoguns and the decorations, while less gorgeous, are very 
refined in taste. One room represents sleeping sparrows in 
a snowy bamboo grove. 

The whole Palace is much more extensive and beautiful 
than the former Gosho Palace of the Mikado, giving evidence 
of the superior wealth and power of the Shoguns. It was in 
this Palace that the last of the Shoguns surrendered his 
authority to the Mikado. 

The garden now has trees, although originally it con- 
sisted only of rocks and shrubbery, as trees, with their falling 
leaves, were supposed to typify too vividly the changes and 
decay of human life. ‘The garden has a tiny cascade and a 
lotus pond with an islet connected by a bridge, and lesser 
buildings which make a romantic picture. 

The Chion-in is a magnificent temple, 167 by 138 feet, 
and 95 feet high, which belongs to the influential Jodo sect. 
The temple site affords a comprehensive view of the city. 

The two storied gateway entrance, a remarkable struc- 
ture, eighty-one by twenty-seven feet, and eighty feet in 
height, opens on a long avenue lined with stone lanterns of 
varied design. ‘The chief sight is an impressive and ar- 
tistically decorated temple, the huge Buddha in the rear 
being only dimly seen. In the corridor as one goes into the 
Dai-Hojo, or Palace of the Abbot, is a nightingale pave- 
ment, so named because the sounds produced by persons 
walking over it suggest the song of birds. ‘The palace has 
many rooms decorated with splendid paintings,—in fact, the 
whole monastery is very rich in art treasures. A huge bell, 
eighteen feet in height and weighing seventy-five tons, is 
only heard on special anniversary occasions. 

The Higashi Hongwan-ji, or Eastern Temple of the 
Ikko sect, has the purest type of Japanese Buddhism, is per- 
haps the greatest triumph of modern Japanese temple build- 
ing. It is 230 feet, with a height of 126 feet, its peaked 
tiled roof being upheld by ninety-six huge pillars. It is 
called Hongwan-Ji, or Monastery of the “Real Vow,” be- 


a 


Peer O S1GHTSEEIN G (139 


cause Amida is supposed to have made a vow that he would 
not become Buddha, unless salvation should be free to all 
who would signify their desire by calling on his name ten 
times. 

The chief tenet of Ikko Buddhism is that ‘man is to be 
saved, not by works or by vain repetition of prayers, but by 
. faith in the mercy of Amida,” a Buddha who resembles the 
Christ ideal. As this belief is similar to the Christian doc- 
trine and as their priests are permitted to marry, it is some- 
times called the “Protestantism of Japan.” 

The huge bare pillars and other interior portions of the 
_colossal temple are constructed of keyaki wood, having a fine 
close grain that lasts for centuries without paint or other 
protection. “The temple’s marvellous carvings, its sheen of 
gold, its fragrant incense, its significant symbolism, and the 
chanting of the priests with the reiteration of “Hail to the 
eternal splendour of Buddha,’’—all combine to make a pro- 
found religious impression. On the altar are the words, 
“See Truth,” said to have been painted by the Emperor’s 
own hand. 

The most remarkable object, which may be seen in the 
corridor, is a large rope of human hair, ninety feet long 
and nine inches in circumference. It was one of the cables 
used to lift the timbers into place, when the temple was 
being built, and was the gift of 30,000 devoted women of the 
Kyoto province. “There are twenty-nine other great cables 
preserved in a storehouse, all made of human hair, one of 
them two hundred and twenty feet long and four inches in 
diameter. It is said that not one was broken, in spite of 
the constant and strenuous service during the entire period 
of building. A very charming garden with a nine-story 
pagoda is immediately to the east. “This temple cost seven 
million yen and took sixteen years to build, being completed 
in 1895. ‘Travellers should not miss seeing it. 

The Nishi Hongwan-ji, or Western Temple, also near 
the Shichiso station, has fine state apartments, not ordinarily 
open, but are usually shown to foreigners on application. 


140 JAPAN 


They are among the finest in Japan and there is a great 
variety of unusual carvings and decorations. In the sacer- 
dotal apartments are the sparrow room, and the rooms of 
the chrysanthemum, the peacock, the tiger and the stork, all 
with elaborate pictorial panels and wall decorations. ‘The 
Amida-do, or Buddha Hall, is especially rich in gold and 
lacquer, as well as pictures of polychrome angels in the 
Buddhist paradise. 

The Sanji Usangendo, or Hall of the 33,000 Buddhas, 
is a curious place, more like a warehouse of images than a 
temple. 

The Shin Kyogoku, the principal theatre street, is full 
of moving pictures, restaurants, and all kinds of shows, 
including a marionette theatre with revolving stage. It 
represents a gay scene, especially by night. 

The Gionmachi, which lies between Shijo Bridge and 
Maruyama Park, includes the most fashionable section of 
the city, the side streets having many tea houses, that special- 
ise geisha dancing girls. “The Miyako dance and the Odori, 
or cherry, dance, are supposed to have special artistic at- 
tractiveness. 

The Kyoto Imperial Art Museum, open nine to four, 
has a score of exhibition rooms and is one of the three largest 
museums in the country. Its three main divisions are his- 
torical objects, fine arts and art industries. It has a re- 
markable collection of religious and archzological objects, 
together with gold lacquer work, bronzes, swords, embroid- 
eries, ceramics, armour, weapons, musical instruments, palan- 
quins, illuminated screens, ivory carvings, paintings, sculp- 
tures and rare kakemonas and makemonas, and should by all 
means be visited. 

The Toji, near the Shicijo station, is a great Buddhist 
temple in a large walled enclosure, and is famous for its 
five story pagoda, 216 feet high, as well as for its rare col- 
lection of paintings and sculptures, such as are rarely seen 
in any other temples. 

The Imperial Villa (popularly called Ochaya) consists 


a 


KYOTO SIGHTSEEING 141 


of three buildings erected for the Ex-Emperor Gomizuno in 
a large park of sixty-nine acres. It has the advantage of 
an elevated location, affording a fine view of the city. ‘The 
buildings are decorated in a somewhat similar manner as 
are the other palaces. ‘The garden, with its lotus covered 
ponds, bridges and islands, is very charming, and over the 
tablet of one of the buildings is the name ‘‘House of Bliss.” 
(Rakushi-ken) written by the ex-Emperor himself. 

The Katsura Summer Palace is a suburban structure 
in a garden of eleven acres, consisting of the Palace itself 
and seven other houses, together with sixteen bridges, 
twenty-five lanterns, and eight water basins. ‘The Palace 
does not seem fresh and ornate, because it is purposely pre- 
served in its ancient condition, but it contains some of the 
best paintings and art objects in Japan. 

The Arashiyama, eight miles from the city, is the Coney 
Island of Kyoto and is one of the most beautiful places in 
Japan. 

The Gold Pavilion (Kinkaku-ji) was originally the villa 
of a court noble, and was afterward used by a Shogun as a 
place of retirement, being finally turned into a Buddhist 
Temple. The pavilion, built five hundred years ago, is a 
well-preserved example of the artistic refinements of that 
period. ‘There are some rare treasures in connection with 
the temple, consisting of statues, images, paintings and por- 
traits. Although the buildings have lost some of their bril- 
liant colour and sheen of gold, one can go through rooms 
without number, including an audience chamber of a thou- 
sand mats, each room having its distinctive decorations. 

Kyoto has a thousand variations of interest. Here are 
historical monuments and legends; a precipice called “‘lovers’ 
leap” with its Japanese setting of a world-familiar tragedy; 
temple bells and strange forms of worship; shops and facto- 
ries with alert and skilful workmen; theatres with geisha 
girl dancers; fortune tellers; street processions with various 
floats, waving banners, and gaily garbed retinues; brilliantly 


142 JAPAN 


lighted restaurants, and life in the streets, seething with 
spectacular interest. 

In this city of nearly 700,000 inhabitants there are said 
to be practically no police, and one is told that they are not 
needed. Kyoto people call residents of Tokyo “ruffians” 
while Tokyo retaliates by calling them “monkeys in bro- 
cade,” because Kyoto specialises figured silks. 

The Doshisha University. ‘The real founder of the 
Doshisha (the name means “like-minded”’) University is a 
native by the name of Neesima, who left Japan by stealth 
in 1864, as it would have meant death had his purpose been 
known. He wanted very much to get an education, based 
on occidental methods and ideals. He was helped by a Mr. 
Hardy of Boston during his entire preparatory and college 
education. He interested several American teachers in his 
project to go back with him and establish an educational 
institution along American lines. 

From the small beginning it has grown to an institution 
with 130 professors and instructors, 2,000 young men and 
1,000 girls, including preparatory collegiate students, and is 
crowded almost beyond capacity, turning hundreds away 
every year. It is the mother of all the later universities, 
and has sent many of its graduates to them to serve as 
teachers. ‘The endowment is only $300,000, the Japanese 
giving a full third of all the amount necessary to supple- 
ment the small income. 

The Japanese are also largely helping in the erection of 
buildings. A recent science building, for instance, costing 
$35,000, was entirely subscribed for by the Japanese. 

The Congregational Board of Missions (A. B. C. F. M.), 
invested more than a million dollars in the enterprise, and 
then turned it over to a Japanese Board of Christian trus- 
tees. ‘These have had such pressure brought upon them by 
the Japanese Government, that they relinquished its control — 
to the Government, although no refund was made to the 


Mission Board. 


CHILDREN ON TEMPLE STAIRS 
PUBLIC SCHOOL PLAYGROUND 








Pere O SIGHTSEEING '43 


GENERAL INFORMATION 


Hotels. Kyoto Hotel, near the centre of the city, is 
comfortable, and the new Miyako Hotel on a slope at the 
city’s outer edge, which opened June, 1924, accommodates 
200 guests, every room being provided with a bath. It has 
a fine terrace with a charming view, and a perfect garden, 
whose charm at night is enhanced with an imported supply 
of fireflies. 

Churches. The Episcopal, Presbyterian, Methodist, 
Congregational and Baptist Mission Boards carry on regu- 
lar Church and Mission work, there being twenty-five Chris- 
tian Churches, with a dozen foreign missionaries and forty 
Japanese ministers, the total membership being upwards of 
three thousand. Hotel proprietors will furnish addresses 
and instructions about finding any of these places. 

Shopping. Kyoto, one of the greatest shopping centres 
in Japan, employs over 125,000 men and women artisans, 
who produce goods to the value of 100,000,000 yen a year. 
Among the best dealers are Yamanaka, with the largest art 
collection in Japan; S. Nishimura, who specialises in fine 
silks; Namikawa, in cioisonné; S. Komai, in Damascene 
ware; Kuroda, in bronze; Hyashi, in gold lacquer. Yama- 
toya is reliable and has a variety of wares. Among other 
objects of special interest to buy are cloisonné, porcelains, 
bronzes, sword guards, netsukes, inros, koros, tea jars, tea 
bowls, sake bowls, nightingale bottles, pearl, crystal, car- 
nelian and ‘“‘Fuji’” beads, silks, komonos, haori coats, fukusas 
(gift cloths), and Japanese prints. 

Cloisonné, the oldest form of enamelling, is found in all 
grades and qualities, on gold, silver and copper, the price 
depending on the material used as well as the time, skill 
and care given to its production. Cheap pieces break easily 
because of the wires not being soldered and of defects in the 
enamelling. The most famous cloisonné artist in the world 
is Nammakawa of Kyoto, excelling in beauty of design, 
perfect fusing of enamels and wonderful polish. 


144 TAPAS 


Satsuma. One needs to beware in buying porcelains 
and potteries. Many cheap, garish, six-months’-old pieces 
are passed off as “old Satsuma.” ‘The different wares were 
named originally for the districts, towns or provinces where 
they were produced; but now cheap Satsuma is made in 
various places outside of the Province of Satsuma, and Kaga 
ware almost anywhere except in Kaga. If one does not 
know values, safety lies in a written guaranty. Banko ware 
teapots are unglazed and very pleasing. Seto porcelain is 
famous, much of it being pale grey-green. Both old Imari 
and old Kutami ware are scarce and choice. 

In buying bronze, it is important that each piece be tested 
on the under side with a knife to see if it can be cut, as it 
is a common trick to make lead figures, coat them with a 
bronze finish and sell them to unsuspecting foreigners for 
the price of real bronze. 

Damascene Ware is available in great variety, and abun- 
dant opportunity is given to see its manufacture. Sword 
guards are still to be found, though the best ones have been 
absorbed by museums. ‘They are much sought after and 
are used as paper weights. 

Netsukes are doubtless the most characteristic ivory 
carving, ancient or modern, though many are made of bone 
or horn. ‘They are the universal carrier handle for Inros 
(the little trays strung together on cords in which cosmetics 
are carried). An incense shop is truly Japanese. Here one 
finds the koros or incense burners of all sizes and shapes and 
values. Nightingale bottles emit a musical sound like birds 
twittering as liquid is poured out of them. 

Rock Crystal. Japan produces the best quality of rock 
crystal, and it is secured from the ocean bottom. It is the 
Japanese symbol of purity, and in old times was thought to 
be ice that had been so long congealed it could not be melted. 
The Japanese make it into balls by hand, carefully chipped 
with small steel hammers with great patience and skill. 
These balls were thought to have magic properties and used 
to be placed in tombs. 


SHOPPING 144A 


Beads have been used for adornment since the earliest 
days of which we have record, and rock crystal beads are 
preferably purchased here because of their cheapness as well 
as superior quality. 

Beautiful Carnelian beads of the rich tomato red colour, 
their value depending on the evenness of colour and the 
brilliance of the hand polish. ‘The carnelian was one of 
the first stones used for ornament. ‘The Children of Israel 
are said to have engraved it. Fuyri beads are opalescent 
and peculiar to Japan, and are sold as low as one dollar a 
string. 

Here, too, are found ArTiIFIcCIAL PEAarL Beans of many 
grades. “The cheapest ones are the kind that dissolve with 
moisture and heat, and crush with slight pressure. Others 
are made of glass, poorly lacquered. Still another kind is 
made of ground fish scales, well lacquered, and of better 
quality. The best are made of ground-up mother-of-pearl, 
beautifully lacquered and very durable. But in Japan one 
may buy at factories where they are made fine beads, wash- 
‘able, brilliant, and coated exactly as are the best pearls, 
for a very low price. 

Culture Pearls are a specialty here. The oyster shell 
is opened and a tiny piece of mother-of-pearl inserted. ‘This 
becomes an irritant, causing the oyster to protect itself by 
building up a wall of pearl. A sizable pearl develops in 
three or four years. Not being completely rounded, they 
cannot be used as beads, but they are used in settings for 
jewellery. “The pink and blue ones are made so by inject- 
ing chemicals. 

The divers for these bivalves are mostly women who stay 
under water two or three minutes. During one day a 
woman will bring up more than a thousand pearl-bearing 
oysters. 

Silks and Embroideries. Japan raises thirty per cent. 
of all the silk in the world. Of this whole supply sixty 
per cent. comes to the United States. It was one of the 
misfortunes of the earthquake that so many thousands of 


144B JSAP AWN. 


tons of raw silk were destroyed. Short lengths of very 
beautiful “trial weaves” in exquisite designs and in a great 
variety of colours may be purchased at reasonable prices 
and are very useful for bags, pillows and small runners. 
Painted crépes are works of art and are used for the better 
grade of kimonos and obis. Sometimes these painted de- 
signs are further decorated and shaded with stitches of silk 
or gold thread embroidery. “These crépes were used for . 
kimonos back in the time of the daimios, and these ancient 
garments may be purchased to-day with the colours and gold 
thread as bright and beautiful as though made yesterday. 
Of course, they are by no means cheap, even in Japan. 

The ordinary highly coloured cheap embroidered kimono 
that is sold to Americans for boudoir use is not worn by the 
Japanese. But even prominent silk houses put out these 
cheap, tasteless and inferior articles for tourists, because the 
latter are familiar with this grade of work and are willing 
to pay for it. 

Although the Japanese learned the art of embroidery 
from China, they surpass the Chinese in the artistic quality 
of their work and in colour and design, attaining every 
colour effect of the painter. Choice silks, crépes, temple 
handings, and embroideries may be purchased by the alert 
and experienced buyer. Sometimes they are found in the 
pawn shops, having been sold from the go-downs of nobles, 
actors, priests and commoners who needed ready money. 
Bargains in silk by the yard may be found in the designs of 
the previous seasons, where colour and quality are of the 
best but the style is old. 

Haori Coats. A garment coming more into favour each 
year and worn by both men and women is the haori coat. 
It is short, reaching only to about the knee, usually of black, 
with its only decoration the mon or family seal on back and 
sleeves, and lined with a gay silk and tied with a knotted 
silk cord in front. ‘These vary in price from $12 to $25. 

Kimonos. Kimonos of gay-coloured silk, heavily em- 
broidered with floral and animal designs, are made up espe- 


SHOPPING 144C 


cially for tourists, being never worn by Japanese women. 
One can also buy cotton kimonos generally of blue and 
white, such as are used by both men and women for night- 
wear, and for lounging inside the house. ‘Then there is the 
gay blue linen ‘“‘fisherman’s” kimono printed with bright- 
coloured border and huge mon that is worn by the fishermen 
in a parade at the end of a successful season’s catch. These 
are interesting to buy for fancy dress costume, as they are 
never sold in America. Coolie coats may be had for a dollar, 
desirable for the same purpose. 

Fukusas, or gift cloths, are a most useful purchase for 
table covers, pillows and various other purposes. Japanese 
etiquette requires that gifts be wrapped or covered with 
these squares of satin, crépe, or even cotton, which vary in 
price and elegance of design with the wealth of the owner. 
The fukusa is admired and returned to the sender. Cele- 
brated artists have made designs for them and intricate and 
beautiful was the needlework on the choice ones. "These are 
yearly growing scarcer, as the best ones find their way into 
museums and private collections. Popular designs are the 
symbols of long life, the pine, the plum, the bamboo, the 
tortoise, the seven household gods of luck, Daikoku the 
god of riches, fat old Hotei the spirit of goodness, and the 
Swastika that has been the symbol of good luck even from 
the time it was used in the frescoes of the Pyramids, down 
through all countries and by all peoples. 

Prints. Except to the very few, Japanese pictorial art 
is comparatively unknown. ‘Those collectors who have a 
proper understanding of Japanese and Chinese pictures need 
no guide in collecting prints. While a great signature does 
not necessarily imply a remarkable picture, any prints signed 
by certain of the better-known artists are sure to be a good 
investment. Hiroshige ranks high among landscape artists. 
‘Torii Chobei drew with great vigour and boldness. Hokusai, 
who died in 1849, was as widely known as any artist in 
Japan; his work was brilliant and original in design. 
Harunobu figured in the middle of the 18th century as a 


144D JAPAN 


master with a peculiar charm. Buncho was distinguished 
for his colour composition. Shunsho was famous for por- 
traits of actors. Moronobu illustrated many books. Shige- 
masa’s prints are of much distinction. Shigenobu’s are 
extremely rare. Masanobu, Kyosai, Hokkei, Yeizau, ‘Toyo- 
nobu, Sadahide are all famous artists, and Kwaigetsudo 
prints are the rarest of all. 

Curios that are really genuine are getting rather scarce, 
as Japan has been nearly stripped of her genuine old art 
treasures. Sometimes, however, Buddhist temples, that are 
in need of money, will auction off some of their relics. It 
is well to get curios from absolutely reputable dealers, and 
they should be accompanied by signed guaranties of their 
genuineness, 


NARA 


Nara, a city of 53,882 (1920), is the ancient capital of 
Japan, and is easily reached by rail or motor from Osaka, 
Kobe or Kyoto. 

It is famous for its temples founded in the 7th and 8th 
centuries (the first Buddhist sanctuaries in Japan), contain- 
ing rare wood-carvings; its museums with their invaluable 
treasures; its ancient forests of venerable cryptomeria, oak 
and maple, overrun with masses of thick, gnarled wistaria 
vines; its thousands of bronze and tsone lanterns; its Deer 
Park of 1,325 acres; and the gentleness and serenity of its 
religious environment. 

Here was the Imperial seat through seven consecutive 
reigns of four empresses and three emperors. One emperor 
was propped upon the throne on the day of his birth, 201 
A. D., and ruled during the 109 years of his life. 

The Deer Park. It is related that the founder of Nara 
rode up to the mountain on a deer, to choose a place for 
his home, and that, on this account, the deer has been a pro- 
tected and petted animal ever since. © 

‘The Deer Park is the largest in Japan. Here are nearly 
a thousand dappled fallow deer, some of which are so ex- 


Naas SIGHTS 145 


tremely tame, that they fellow people about, ‘“‘nosing” them 
for food. At the sound of a bugle, they come running from 
all directions to be fed, and will eat out of the hands of 
tourists, who have provided themselves with their favourite 
cakes. 

So great is the consideration of the Japanese for these 
sacred deer that, some years ago, a priest was put to death 
by extreme torture, because he accidentally killed one. 
About the middle of October, great crowds gather to watch 
the annual cutting of their horns, which is done to prevent 
their injuring people and one another. ‘These horns are 
made into canes (sections of the horn being joined together, 
giving the effect of bamboo) and other curios, which find 
a ready sale among tourists. 

Nara is a beautiful rest place, where little streams among 
the hills make music that sings away anxious thoughts and 
cares. It is not magnificent like Nikko, nor resplendent 
like Kyoto, but it is rich in historical associations and in 
ancient temples, around which its life centres. 

Temples. The Shinto rules formerly required that its — 
temples be rebuilt every twenty years, the original building 
being duplicated at each reconstruction, but now only the 
Ise Temple of the Sun goddess at Yamada undergoes this 
change. Every twenty years, trees are planted at Yamada 
by the priests, to furnish timber for future building. 

Some of the Buddhist shrines have been destroyed by fire 
and rebuilt; some have suffered seriously at times when 
their revenues have been withheld or their lands taken from 
them. But these Buddhist temples contain historic master- 
pieces, the existence of which many of the Japanese them- 
selves were hardly aware of until 1897, when national 
treasures came under government protection. 

The temple containing the bronze Daibutsu is unat- 
tractive. It is so insecure that it has had to be reinforced 
by huge beams and bracings. It was built in 1709, there 
having been two previous structures, the earliest one dat- 


146 JAPAN 


ing from 752. For one hundred and forty years previous 
to that time, the Buddha image was not enclosed. 

The great two-storied torii, leading to this temple, is a 
weather-beaten but picturesque gateway having stood there 
for eleven centuries, and apparently being able to with- 
stand time’s natural decay for hundreds of years to come. 
A huge bronze lantern near by is said to have long con- 
tained the sacred fire brought from Ceylon. 

The Daibutsu was designed and made by Korean artists 
in 749 A.D., after eight failures in casting the metal. The 
material used in the construction of the bronze included 
five hundred pounds of gold and a million pounds of copper, 
together with corresponding amounts of tin, lead and other 
alloys, and two years were required to complete the casting. 
The statue is fifty-three and a half feet high, and its weight 
is estimated at five hundred tons. ‘The present head is the 
third one to have been constructed, the previous ones having 
been destroyed by fires. ‘The statue is very inferior, having 
negroid features, a rather sullen expression, the eyes being 
half closed, and lacks the dignity and benignity of the Kama- 
kura Daibutsu. He is seated on a lotus pedestal and has 
one hand raised in benediction, the other resting upor his 
knee. ‘Two lesser, but very large, Buddhas have a position 
on either side. From the material, which was left from the 
image, a casting was made of the big bell, nine feet in 
diameter, thirteen and a half feet high, weighing forty-eight 
tons, whose tones can be heard to the furthermost parts of 
Nara. ‘Tourists are allowed to swing the heavy tongue of 
this bell, on payment of a few sen. 

On a hill above the Daibutsu are other Buddhist temples, 
one devoted to Kwannon (the goddess of mercy), another 
to the god of war. ‘Terraces of stone, mossy lanterns and 
drinking fountains make these old places picturesque. - from 
this height, there are magnificent views looking across to 
the mountains, that separate Nara from Osaka’s rice plains. 

The group of buildings of Horyuji temple is unique in 
being the oldest wooden structures in existence, having been 


Peaiae po hG ATS 147 


built twelve hundred years ago. They are of Chinese and 
Korean design, and are especially important because no struc- 
tures of that period are found elsewhere. 

A cluster of tea-houses and shops lie between these Bud- 
dhist sanctuaries on one side and the Shinto temples beyond. 
Quaint stone steps lead down to a path, lined with stone and 
bronze lanterns, leading to the ancient Shinto temple of 
Kasuga. There are more than three thousand of these 
lanterns along the Kasuga approaches, all being the gifts 
from daimyos, nobles and rich believers. When the temples 
were prosperous in the early days, they were lighted each 
night, but now it is only at an annual festival held February 
2nd, that they are all illuminated, giving the Park an en- 
trancing and fairy-like appearance. 

From the Kasuga gateway, the upper avenue of lanterns 
leads to the Wakamiya shrine dedicated to the Shinto gods. 
Here the sacred dance of the olden days is still continued. 
One may see as many dancers, and as many dances, as he 
will pay for. After collecting the money, the priests play 

on creaky flutes and beat tom-toms as a melancholy accom- 
- paniment. The dancers wear the old costume of the Im- 
perial court—a divided skirt of bright red silk under a thin 
white kimono. ‘Their faces are made expressionless by the 
plastering of white paint, heavily rouged lips, shaved eye- 
brows and the two tiny black dots on the middle of the 
forehead. 

The sacred dance consists of short slow rhythmic steps 
forward and backward, each dancer waving a fan and a 
cluster of tinkling bells, from which hang long strips of 
bright coloured silk. ‘The dance repeats the same figures and 
movements with little change in the measure. Near this 
temple is a live white horse, regarded as sacred, which is 
pampered with delicacies. 

The Nara Museum, housed in a modern structure, is a 
collection of antique carvings in wood of deities and war- 
riors, that has no equal in Japan. Nara possessed a school 
of sculpture in wood as early as the eleventh century. The 


148 JAPAN 


nude figure in art has never appealed to them, as they have 
always considered the draped one as far more beautiful. 

The Shoso-in is a collection (housed in a dingy build- 
ing) of valuable objects associated with former Imperial 
palaces, such as metal mirrors, cloisonné, lacquered art 
specimens, musical instruments, masks, books, sandalwood- 
carvings, ivory and tortoise shell ornaments, weapons, vest- 
ments, incense burners and temple utensils, screens, bronze 
statues, bells, toys, Buddhist images, ancient pottery and 
semi-precious stones. 

Here in Nara are the Golden and Silver Pavilions 
(which are the summer palaces of the retired princes), set in 
entrancing gardens, having little pools filled with goldfish, 
and a ‘“‘Wash the Moon” cascade, where the moon is re- 
flected upon the perpendicular fall of waters, which in the 
old days was believed to keep the moon bright and shiny. 

At the edge of the town is the large Sarusawa Pond, 
stocked with carp and tortoises. On one side of it is a shrine 
erected in memory of a lady of the court, who in the eighth 
century drowned herself, because she had lost favour with 
the emperor. Nearby is the “‘coat-hanging willow tree” 
where she hung her outer garments before her fatal plunge. 
On a hill near this historic pond is the fine old five-storied 
pagoda, 165 feet high, dating from 1462. 

The Nara Hotel is built on the site of an Imperial palace, 
and has the same architectural motif. It is a modern struc- 
ture having seventy rooms, giving good service, and its 
elevated location commands a fine view of the city. By 
special arrangement with the hotel proprietor, a perform- 
ance of the classic No plays will be shown. 


YAMADA 


Yamada lies about eighty miles southeast of Nara, and 
can be reached in four hours by train. Both Yamada and 
Nara lie in the province, which saw the beginnings of the 
Japanese nation. In Yamada was buried the first emperor, 


OSAKA 149 


Jimmu Tenno, who is alleged to have descended from the 
sun goddess. A long line of his Mikado descendants are 
buried here, and the Japanese people regard a pilgrimage to 
the Ise temple of the sun goddess almost as a religious duty. 
It is the supreme Shinto temple of Japan, and according to 
tradition contains three great treasures, a sword, a jewel 
and a mirror, which belonged to the sun goddess. 

At Yamada, the Emperor himself occasionally goes in 
order to engage in ancestor worship at the Ise shrine, and a 
million religious pilgrims come every year for worship and 
sight-seeing. “The town itself makes a living by the manu- 
facture and sale of religious symbols and souvenirs. Here 
everything is regarded so sacred by the ultra-religious, that 
a prominent Cabinet minister, who unintentionally touched 
some sacred objects with his cane in pointing them out, was 
shot down by a young zealot, and public opinion largely 
approved the rash act, although the loss of a valued minister 
was regretted. Yet strangely enough, there are more Yoshi- 
wara women here than in any city in Japan, averaging one 
for every fifty of the inhabitants, 


OSAKA 


Osaka, with 1,395,000 inhabitants (1920), is the second 
largest city in Japan, covering nine square miles, the busiest, 
but the least picturesque and attractive of all Japanese cities. 
Lying at the edge of the plain, where the Yodogawa River 
empties into Osaka Bay, the shallow waters prevent the 
entrance of large steamships, so that Kobe twenty miles 
across the Bay is its seaport. “The many branches of the 
river, and the innumerable canals and eight hundred bridges, 
have given the city the name of the “Venice of Japan.” 

In the Sixteenth Century William Adams, the first Eng- 
lishman to reach Japan, was driven on its shores in a storm. 
Because of his knowledge of ships and ship-building, he was 
summoned to Osaka by Tokugawa, the Shogun, and was not 
allowed to return home. Later he was presented with an 


150 JAPAN 


estate, was married to a Japanese wife, and was known and 
beloved as Anjin Sama, his name being still preserved by an 
annual festival held June 15th. 

_ Osaka, although without a factory chimney a quarter of 
a century ago, is now the great manufacturing centre of the 
Japanese Empire, and an observer from the top of its show- 
place.—the ruined Castle——can count hundreds of high 
smokestacks, giving almost the impression of a city like Man- 
chester or Pittsburgh. It has a rice stock exchange, sug- 
gestive of the Chicago wheatpit. In recent years, Japan has 
made tremendous advances in making factory products. It 
has set out to capture the markets of the world with a com- 
petitive fierceness, that suggests a tiger equipped with wings. 

Japan’s main markets, namely China and India, are at 
her door, and her low labour cost, and the abundant raw 
materials from China and Korea, give her an immense ad- 
vantage. She is now building entire dreadnoughts and is 
making all imaginable forms of steel products (one steel 
plant alone covering 350 acres). One-third of these steel 
employés are women, many of them doing heavy manual 
work. Japan is running several million spindles and con- 
sumes nearly two million bales of cotton, many of its fac- 
tories making a profit of twenty to thirty per cent. 

The slums of Osaka are the filthiest in the world, without 
plumbing or sewers,—not at all in accord with the fastidious 
cleanliness sometimes associated with the Japanese. Hun- 
dreds of thousands of factory workers who labour for wages, 
are perilously close to the starvation line, in many cases actu- 
ally living on garbage. ‘The congestion of its population far 
exceeds that of any Occidental city, its submerged tenth, 
being actually wedged into narrow quarters where they sleep 
promiscuously on the floor, with only rags for covering. 

All this tends to form a community problem, which the 
Japanese Government should meet in a large and generous 
way, if it would conserve the health and welfare of its 
working people- Hours of labour in Osaka,—varying from 
eleven to sixteenm—low wages, and the employers’ lack of 


SYUIVLS WIdNAL NO ONIAVaAd NAYXATIHO LAGaLS AALVAHL 








OSAKA SIGHTS ISI 


care for their workmen, have caused strikes and sabotage, 
and although strikes are prohibited by law, they are not 
suppressed by the Government. All the evils of child labour, 
long hours, unsanitary factories, and congested slums,—are 
very glaring, but Japan is beginning to see and correct the 
unfortunate tendencies, and it is doubtful if the ranks of 
labour will precipitate a reaction of blood and chaos. 

Most of the houses in the city are built of wooden ma- 
terials and face narrow streets, and as a result fire has been 
a destructive enemy. In 1910, 11,000 houses were burned 
and in 1912, 4,830 shared a similar fate. 

There are practically no characteristic sights in Osaka 
save as the crowded, busy streets present a constant shifting 
scene of Japanese life. “The temples do not compare with 
those of Nikko or Kyoto. At the same time, the city has 
its impressive side. | 

The Osaka Castle, with an immense area of 274 acres, 
was built by Hideyoshi in 1584. Its high walls, one of them 
having 120 towers, were two and a half miles in circum- 
ference and its deep moats were from 250 to 500 feet wide. 
It was supposed to be absolutely invulnerable. 

The Osaka Castle has largely an historic interest, as the 
main structure was destroyed by fire in 1868, leaving only 
the moat, the castle foundation and the massive walls. It is 
impressive in showing the great size and stability of the old 
Shogun feudal castles. “There are single stones forty-six 
feet in length and ten or twelve feet square to be found on 
each side of the main gate. Other stones, twenty feet high, 
are in the foundation, many being known by special names 
and having their own legends. Here is revealed a mastery 
of engineering skill in handling and placing such enormous 
materials without the aid of modern appliances, which is all 
the more remarkable, in view of its having been built about 
three hundred years ago. Three years were spent in its con- 
struction, 50,000 workmen being employed. Here in 1615, 
Iyeyasu, the chief general of Hideyoshi, with 270,000 men, 
besieged the castle of his Shogun lord, who defended it with 


152 JAPAN 


his 90,000 ronins, and when the castle and its defenders 
were captured, Hideyoshi committed harikari. 

From the top of Osaka castle, a very interesting view of 
smoky Osaka and its environs can be had, and it is well 
worth the effort of the climb. It is now the headquarters 
of the fourth Army division. Outside its walls are the gun 
foundry and arsenal. 

The Bronze Bell in the Tenno-ji Temple (founded in 
600 A.D.) is the largest hanging bell in the world, being 
twenty-six feet high and thirty-four in circumference. It 
weighs 155 tons, and requires the trunk of a tree to make it 
boom. ‘The Kremlin bell in Moscow, which is nineteen feet 
high, is the next in size. In the temple grounds is the 
Turtle Court, with the sacred turtles, estimated at half a 
million in number. ‘This temple also has a famous five- 
storied pagoda. 

Osaka takes great pride in its Mint, where there is a 
complete collection of Japanese and Chinese coins from the 
earliest days as well as coins and medals from other coun- 
tries. . 

Another place of interest is the Bazaar for the exhibi- 
tion and sale of articles manufactured at Osaka. A small 
admission fee is charged which, with a slight percentage on 
all sales, supports the institution. One may spend hours 
of interest among lacquers, teakwood carvings, porcelains, 
gold and silverware, crépes, brocades, straw goods, stamped 
leather, kairos, netsukes, kimonos, etc. 

Osaka has Curio Shops in abundance which are veritable 
museums of the choicest industrial art and metal work of 
old Japan. ‘The names of Muramasa, Masamune and the 
Miochins are as familiar to connoisseurs of metal work, as 
is that of Benvenuto Cellini. 

There is also a Private Collection of Bronzes, the finest 
in Japan, owned by Baron Sumitomo. 

Osaka owns a newspaper with the largest circulation in 
the world (larger than the number of its inhabitants), 
guaranteed in Summer of 1922 to be 1,755,000. ‘This paper 


KOBE 153 


does a large social service work by maintaining an ambulance 
accompanied by three trained physicians, the use of which 
is free to the poorest, and it not only takes them to a hos- 
pital, but pays their expenses while there if they are unable 
to do so. 

Shinshabashi, the main street, usually has a very gay 
and animated crowd of people. Theatre (Solombori) 
Street, decorated with varied banners and festooned with 
flowers, and with the picture display of theatres and movies 
on every side, makes a very interesting place for observing 
Japanese life, especially at night, when there is a Broadway 
glare of electric light. “The exhibitions in which marionettes 
are used are extraordinarily clever, but as plays sometimes 
last seven hours or more, the foreigner finds the impressions 
gained in a visit of a few minutes quite sufficient. Osaka 
has only one small park of seven acres situated in the main 
part of the city. “The Osaka Hotel is the principal one. 

Churches. ‘There are three Roman Catholic and 
twenty-seven Protestant churches, the latter having eight 
foreign missionaries and twenty-one Japanese pastors. 

’ ‘The American Board (Congregational) carries on the 
“Plum Blossom” school with 800 girl pupils. Six hundred 
girls last year applied for admission into the high school de- 
partment, but unfortunately there was room for only 280. 


KOBE 


Kobe, while now the most important commercial port of 
Japan, had no trade in 1868, and was only a little fishermen 
community with less than 10,000 inhabitants, while now it 
is a city of 608,628 (1920). British interests, however, were 
gradually established there, and it has rapidly become an 
extensive trade centre, having outranked Yokohama even 
before the earthquake, its total exports and imports exceed- 
ing $800,000,000. Here are found dockyards and cotton 
mills suggestive of Osaka. It has assumed somewhat of 
the character of a European city from the beginning, hav- 
ing wide tree-shaded streets and substantial buildings. 


154 JAPAN 


Hyogo, the old city on the opposite side of a small river, is 
more distinctively Japanese. 

Kobe means ‘‘Gate of God” probably in reference to its 

location at the head of the Inland Sea. 
' Behind the city are the Rokko Mountains, which are some- 
times spoken of as “Kobe Alps.’’ ‘The streets of the city 
slope steeply to the water’s edge where, on the long Bund, 
the pride of Kobe, are found consulates, banks, and other 
important buildings. 

As Kobe is a very modern city, there are few distinctive 
sights, although the bustling shops and the street life of 
the people have a perennial attraction. 

The Twin Waterfalls (Nunobiki-no-Taki) | are within 
a short rikisha ride and consist of a double fall, the ‘“‘Fe- 
male Fall” being forty-three feet high, which although the 
smaller is the more attractive, as would naturally be ex- 
pected from its name. Crossing the bridge one reaches after 
a short climb the ‘“Male Fall” eighty-two feet high. The 
walks are illuminated at night with thousands of electric 
lights, creating an effect of fairyland, and it is a favourite 
resort for the people in summer weather. ‘The great reser- 
voir, supplying the city’s water, is on the top of this hill. 

Suwayama Park is situated on a hillside, giving a com- 
prehensive view of the city, bay and the encircling moun- 
tains. ‘Tea-houses and mineral baths add to the attractions. 

A Fencing Hall, where exhibitions of fencing and jiu- 
jitsu are given almost daily, will interest people who are 
fond of witnessing athletic sports. 

The Nanko Shrine, near the Kobe Station, is erected in 
honour of a warrior of the first half of the fourteenth cen- 
tury, renowned for his heroism and his devotion to the 
emperor. 

Minatogawa Park, usually spoken of as Theatre Street, 
is in the bed of a former deflected stream, and is now an 
amusement centre with theatres, moving pictures and res- 
taurants. One of its attractive features is a promenade 
skirted with fine trees. 


MODES .GH TS 155 


The Okura Recreation Ground is a popular resort, oc- 
cupying the entire hill of Anyoje, and commands the pan- 
oramic sweep westward over the city and bay. Here on a 
hill is found the statue of Prince Ito, who was assassinated 
while at the head of the Japanese Government in Korea. 

The Daibutsu is a bronze image of Buddha, twenty- 
eight feet high which, while having an attractive environ- 
ment, is inferior to the Kamakura statue, both in size and 
artistic quality. It is located at the Nofukuji Temple in 
the Hyogo part of Kobe, within a half hour’s ride of the 
hotel. 

Temples. At the Raiko-ji Temple may be seen the 
tomb of Matsuo, a servant of a former ruler, who, as the 
story goes, offered himself up as a victim to be buried alive 
under the embankment, so as to appease the sea-gods, and 
get their favour in permitting the erection of the harbour 
works. 

A Shinto Temple (Ikuta-jinga) is within a few minutes’ 
ride from the Oriental Hotel, whose special temple deity is 
believed to have taught the value of the loom and of clothing. 

The only temple of special interest is the Maya-san, al- 
though it is in no way comparable to the temples of Kyoto 
or Nikko. There are ninety Buddhist temples and seventy- 
four Shinto shrines in Kobe. 

The Suburban Seaside Resorts of Suma, Maiko, and 
Akashi are all within a ride of an hour or less by electric 
tram, with lovely views of the islands and shores of the 
Inland Sea. Here are parks, beaches, restaurants, and gay 
holiday multitudes in the bathing season. 

Rokkosan, a foreign suburb, is reached partly by rail- 
road, the last five miles being made by sedan chair with four 
men carriers. Here is a fine British community of over 
fifty villas, together with an eighteen-hole golf course of 
twenty-five acres, said to be the largest and best in the Far 
East. 

Hotels. The Oriental Hotel is a well-located hotel 
with all modern improvements, including a theatre for mo- 


156 JAPAN 


tion pictures and private theatricals. ‘The Tor Hotel is 
delightfully situated and is also popular among foreigners. 

Churches. In Kobe there are three Roman Catholic 
Churches as well as twenty-four Protestant Churches and 
‘Missions carried on by the Methodist, Baptist, Episcopal 
and Presbyterian denominations. ‘The Kobe College of the 
Southern Methodist Church has one thousand boys en- 
rolled, and the American Board (Congregational) has a 
school of eight hundred girls. 

Shopping. ‘The principal shops are on Motomachi 
Street, where there is an excellent display of silk goods, 
curios, embroideries, porcelains, bronzes, cloisonné, gold lac- 
quer, damascene ware and pottery, with a large assortment 
of characteristic Japanese souvenirs. 

Kobe is the great centre for tea export. According to 
tradition, tea was brought into Japan from China in the 
ninth century. About 120,000 acres of land are under tea 
cultivation and 1,000,000 natives are employed in raising it. 
The best quality is grown around Kyoto, but this grade is 
consumed in Japan. 


THE INLAND |S bee 


The Inland Sea of Japan extends 240 miles from Kobe to 
Shimonoseki, being from three to thirty miles wide, and 
having an area of 1,325 square miles, its coast lines aggre- 
gating seven hundred miles. While it is rather shallow, its 
maximum depth being sixty-eight fathoms, it is safe for 
ocean steamers, although fogs are very common and cause 
vexatious delays. “The entrance and exit of the Inland Sea 
are very narrow, and hence its interior shores are practically 
safe from hostile attacks. 

The Inland Sea is an enthralling waterway, with deeply 
indented coasts, lovely reaches of beach, and myriads of 
wooded islands and islets, great fleets of junks, sampans, 
yachts, passenger steamers and warships—the whole pre- 
senting a fairy-book picture of exquisite charm. 


NAGASAKI 157 


At its entrance there are Palisades, looking somewhat like 
those on the Hudson River opposite New York. Every- 
where a gemmed archipelago of green and golden islands 
greets the eye, some of them terraced to the top with rice 
fields. Part of the time, the passenger steamer creeps 
through narrow straits under the shadow of island promono- 
tories. “The vista of mountains in the background, the 
purple shores, the pine-crowned islands and the quaint vil- 
lages make a continually changing panorama. Fishermen’s 
boats are everywhere, as the Inland Sea has over a hundred 
species of fish, being the best fishing region of Japan. 

One of the most picturesque Islands is Miyajima, nine- 
teen miles in circumference, which has a distinctive temple 
and shrine built on an eminence jutting out over the beach, 
causing the charming cluster of buildings to look like air 
castles. “This is one of the famous scenic Trio of Islands of 
Japan. When its hundreds of lanterns are lighted on a dark 
night, the effect is like an oriental fairyland. 

This “Temple Island” is conspicuous for its immense 
crimson torii rising out of the waters at high tide near the 
_shore. 

The Hall of the Thousand Mats here, set beside a fine 
five-story pagoda, is hung with 50,000 rice spoons, suspended 
by soldiers as a pledge of their loyalty to their country. 


NAGASAKI 


Nagasaki is a city of 176,554 inhabitants, 541 miles 
by railway from Kyoto. It has a fine natural harbour, en- 
tered by a rather narrow inlet three miles long, and is pro- 
tected on three sides by beautifully wooded hills. It is the 
most attractive harbour in Japan, and the encircling views 
from an anchored ship make a lovely panorama, suggesting 
Hong-Kong. 

Nagasaki is a favourite coaling place for Pacific steamers. 
It is an engrossing sight to watch the hundreds of men and 
women, mostly women,—some of whom have babies on 


158 JAPAN 


their backs,—handling the baskets of coal which are emptied — 
into the steamer-hold. ‘There are usually a series of coal 
barges, each one having a row of workers, the person near- 
est the coal taking the basket just filled and passing it along 
the row until it reaches the man on the raised platform, 
who empties it into the coal chute of the steamer. They 
usually pass these baskets (each of which, when filled, 
weighs close to forty pounds), at the rate of about forty a 
minute from each barge. 

The story of the Japanese persecution of the early Chris- 
tians, in the neighbourhood of Nagasaki, is a tragic one. 
The Portuguese were blown ashore here in 1542, and began 
to trade with the natives. Francis Xavier, the great Roman 
Catholic missionary, came in 1549, and made about eight 
hundred converts within two years. Other missionaries fol- 
lowed, and conversions increased, until there were nearly a 
million adherents. 

The Jesuits, however, began to denounce the native re- 
ligions, inciting the populace to destroy the temples and 
idols, and even encouraged the breaking of objectionable 
Japanese laws. Strife also arose between the Portuguese and 
Spanish religious orders. 

It was reported to the Shogun, Hideyoshi, that certain 
Spaniards in the Island boasted that Spain sent missionaries 
in advance, as a means of gaining political power. ‘This so 
incensed the Shogun, that he ordered twenty-six of the 
Franciscan friars to be crucified, others to have their ears 
and noses cut off, and all were ordered to leave the country 
without delay. “They soon, however, began to return, and 
new troubles arose. Iyeyasu, the successor of Hideyoshi, was 
even more intolerant, and he ordered all Christians to be 
driven out of the country, and beheaded sixty special Portu- 
guese envoys from Macao. ‘These were the terrible words 
of his final proclamation: ‘So long as the sun warms the 
earth let no Christian be so bold as to come to Japan.” 
It is estimated that about 280,000 Christians were exe- 
cuted in Japan, during this terrible and extended persecution. 





COALING AT NAGASAKT 


COAL MERCHANT DRAWING ONE AND A HALF TONS 





* 


NAGASAKI SIGHTS 159 


After the expulsion of the Portuguese and Spanish mis- 
sionaries, only the Chinese and the Dutch were allowed to 
bring their trade,—the latter because they said they were 
not Catholics, which to the Japanese meant they were not 
Christians. From 1637 to 1859, this was the only Japanese 
port (and that only in this limited way), which was open 
to the world. 

The Suwa Park, which formerly was a part of the Suwa 
temple grounds, is on the side of a hill overlooking the city, 
and has a charming setting of camphor, pine, and cherry 
trees, including a rather notable banyan tree, which was 
planted by General and Mrs. Grant in 1879. 

The Suwa Shinto Temple, just adjacent to the Park, 
has a great bronze torii, thirty-three feet high at its entrance, 
a series of stairs leading to the temple at the top. The 
temple is attractive because of its environment rather than 
its intrinsic beauty. Early in October, there is a Suwa 
Temple Festival, with a spectacular parade of hosts of chil- 
dren, musicians and dancers, all in striking costumes, to- 
gether with floats and banners. ‘The so-called “Bronze 
Horse,” which is a conspicuous feature of this temple, is a 
‘large but crude figure of a horse, which is placed in the 
temple courtyard. “There are some other Buddhist temples 
and monasteries of lesser importance among the surrounding 
hills. ‘There are also twelve Protestant churches and one 
Roman Catholic, together with five mission schools. 

The Japan Hotel for Europeans is reasonably com- 
fortable. 

An auto or rikisha ride to Mogi, a town about four 
miles across the Peninsula, makes an attractive inland trip, 
the roads being lined with cherry trees and monster bam- 
boos, and the coast nearby has specimens of fossil trees. 

Unzen, a popular summer resort for Europeans, is a jour- 
ney of several hours by rail, and an additional trip by motor. 
It is 2,400 feet above the sea and has numerous hot springs 
and a sanitarium, and makes an excellent winter resort. 


160 PAPA, 


SHIMONOSEKI 


Shimonoseki is 376 miles from Kyoto, and is located at 
the extreme end of the Main (Hondo) Island. It has the 
double distinction of commanding the entrance to the Inland 
Sea, and being the port from which the Japanese steamers 
cross the Tsushima Straits, one hundred and twenty miles 
wide, to Fusan, the nearest port in Korea. ‘The ships, which 
are quite comfortable, connect with all through trains twice 
a day. 

The Sanyo Hotel, managed by the Imperial Government 
Railways is near the station and is modern and comfortable. 
There are no sights of more than passing interest. ‘The city 
has about 70,000 inhabitants, and is a flourishing shipping 
centre. Moji, a similar shipping and coaling port one and 
one-half miles across the Bay, is about the same size. 

In 1863, Shimonoseki was the scene of a miniature war, 
in that the Daimyo of the Province made a determined at- 
tempt to prevent all foreigners from landing in Japan, and 
emphasised his hostility by playing his coast guns on any 
foreign ship that came too near. Although American and 
French war-ships retaliated by inflicting much damage on 
the Daimyo’s gunboats and land batteries, he did not waver 
from his purpose. Finally, a fleet of English, American, 
French and Dutch ships to the number of seventeen, landed 
marines and stormed the batteries, and put an end to the 
guerilla naval warfare. As the Daimyo seemed unable to 
pay the indemnities demanded, the Shogun finally agreed to 
pay the Powers $3,000,000 in full settlement. ‘The United 
States received $785,000 as her share, which, however, she 
voluntarily returned in full to Japan in 1883. 


PRACTICAL Galvan 


Money. Japan has notes of one yen (equal to fifty 
cents), five yen, ten yen, etc., with gold pieces of five yen, 
ten yen, and twenty yen. ‘The silver pieces are one yen, fifty 
sen (there are a hundred sen in a yen), twenty sen, and ten 


: 


Perr Pe MENTARY FACTS ‘161 


sen. In nickel there are ten sen, and five sen, also smaller 
coins in copper. ‘There are ten rin to a sen or 2,000 to an 
American dollar, but tourists rarely handle these, except as 
souvenirs. The yen on July 1, 1925, was worth 40.25 cents. 

Shopping. For full statement see page 142. 

Clothing. In February and March, the weather is still 
raw and cold, often even when the plum-blossoms are ap- 
pearing on the trees, and hence warm wraps are necessary, 
especially in auto and rikisha riding. At Nikko, it is even 
quite wintry, snow being evident on the mountain side near 
the town. In summer it is warm, and light clothing is 
needed. 

Expenses. ‘Travellers can tour Japan at an average ex- 
pense of about $15 a day, stopping at the best hotels. 

Passports and a Japanese visé are necessary. “Tobacco 
has a duty of 355 per cent., except on fifty cigars and one 
hundred cigarettes to each person. No merchandise is ad- 
mitted into Japan without duty, but personal baggage is 
not examined. 

All photographing is prohibited in certain zones, espe- 
cially in military or naval environments. 

Hotels. ‘There are comfortable, and in a few cases, 
luxurious hotels, that especially cater to foreigners. 


SUPPLEMENTARY FACTS AND 
FIGURES 


Japan claims that the Empire was founded 660 B.c., and 
that her present Emperor Joshihito (born in 1879) is the 
122nd in line of an unbroken dynasty that has ruled since — 
the accession of the first Emperor Jimmu Tenno. ‘The 
crown is hereditary through the male members of the fam- 
ily, though in ancient times several emperors seem to have 
reigned in their own right. The word Mikado (meaning 
“Honourable Gate”) is used only by foreigners, his own sub- 
jects calling him Tenno (Son of Heaven). On November 
25, 1921, owing to the mental infirmities of the Emperor, 


162 JAPAN 


the Crown Prince Hirohito was constituted Regent. Japan 
has had its present constitution since 1889. 

The Emperor sovereignty is absolute, but he is assisted 
by cabinet ministers appointed by him and responsible to him. 
A Privy Council is purely advisory. The Emperor is em- 
powered to declare war and make peace, to regulate treaties, 
to sanction laws, to convoke the Imperial Diet and to open, 
close or dissolve the House of Representatives. 

The Imperial Diet consists of two bodies,—the House of 
Peers and the House of Representatives. Every law re- 
quires the approval of the Imperial Diet. 

The House of Peers has 370 members, including the 
male members of the Imperial family (sixteen in number), 
fourteen Princes, thirty-four Marquises, one-fifth of the 
orders of Counts and Viscounts, forty-five of the largest 
tax-payers (nominated by their own class) and a limited 
number of distinguished men appointed by the Emperor. 

The House of Representatives has 463 members, or one 
to every 120,610 of the population. By the new law of 
1925, I1,000,000 males may vote. A general election oc- 
curs every four years for the Lower House, and every seven 
years for the Upper House. ‘The president of each House 
receives 7,500 yen annually, and members 3,000 yen each. 
The Prime Minister is Count Yamamoto. 

Japan is divided into seven Prefectures or Provinces, 
which are sub-divided into municipalities and townships. 
The 518 islands of Japan extend for about 2,100 miles with 
a width of 200 miles at the widest part, altogether having 
an area of 260,738 square miles if Korea and Formosa are 
included; only three of these islands are of considerable size, 
the main one, Hondo, being four-sevenths of the whole in 
area, or about the size of England and Scotland combined. 

Formosa was ceded to Japan by the treaty of Shimonoseki 
in 1895; Sakhalin by the treaty of Portsmouth in 1905 and 
Korea was annexed in 1910. 

Japan is often called Nippon, the “Land of the Rising_ 


SUPPLEMENTARY FACTS 163 


”? 


Sun.” ‘The density of its population is 333 per square mile. 
The population (1920) is 55,963,054; Chosen (Korea), 
17,264,119; Formosa (Taiwan), 3,654,398. During about 
fifty years, up to October, 1920, 581,421 Japanese had 
emigrated and of these, 202,360 went to Hawaii and the 
United States. In December, 1922, there were 25,799 for- 
eigners in Japan, of whom 16,979 were Chinese; 2,258 Eng- 
lish, and 2,187 Americans. 

Absolute religious freedom prevails. Shintoism has thir- 
teen sects, Buddhism twelve sects and fifty-six denominations. 
There is no state religion or state support. ‘There are 
49,346 Shinto shrines and 14,759 priests; 71,681 Buddhist 
temples, with 50,250 priests and priestesses; 1,493 Protestant 
and Catholic churches with 2,566 ministers and priests. 

Elementary education is compulsory for boys and girls 
between the ages of six and fourteen. “There are 9,961,921 
pupils (1920). ‘There are five government universities and 
eleven others. Tokyo University has 417 teachers and 5,233 
students ; Kyoto University 191 teachers with 2,052 students. 
Eighty thousand pupils are training in 250 technical schools. 
The Government expends 44,000,000 yen annually in higher 
education. “The country has 1,359 libraries, and 3,123 
periodicals are published. 

‘There are four courts of various ranks. Juries are not 
employed and judgeships are obtained on examination. In 
1921, Japan had 46,395 criminals in her prisons. 

The revenues (1924) were 1,376,172,969 yen, with the 
same amount for expenditures, while the public debt was 
4,525,202,044 yen. 

Army service is universal and compulsory between the 
ages of seventeen and forty, the war strength being 700,000 
men, and about 250,000 men on a peace footing. War ex- 
penditures (1924) were 178,149,000 yen. The Navy 
(1924) has ten dreadnoughts, eight armoured cruisers, 
twenty-one light cruisers, one hundred and twenty-five de- 
stroyers, nineteen torpedo boats, and eighty-four submarines. 
The displacement of the dreadnoughts varies from 27,500 


164 JAPAN 


tons to 33,800 tons each. ‘The naval budget was 272,629,- 
082 yen. 

Imports (1923) were 1,890,308,202 and exports 1,637,- 
451,818 yen. ‘Total exports to America (1921) amounted 
to 732,376,607, and imports from America to 596,169,490 
yen. ‘The total value of exported raw silk was 418,080,000 
yen. Ships entering (1923) numbered 13,625. ‘There are 
6,728 miles of state railroads and 2,150 of private railroads. 
In 1880, there were only seventy-three miles of railway in 
all Japan, the first line having been opened in 1872 between 
Yokohama and Tokyo. ‘Telegraphic communication began 
in 1867, causing much disquietude among ignorant people, 
who believed it to be a demoniacal thing. Japan has in her 
merchant marine 6,094 steamers, and 45,970 sailing ves- 
sels. She has 8,280 post offices, two-thirds of the employés 
being women. 


RECENT BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Japanese Civilization, K. Satomi. ’24, Dutton. 

Japan, H. H. Powers. ’23, Macmillan. 

Creative Forces in Japan, G. M. Fisher. ’23, Missionary 
Education Movement. 

In Lotus Land Japan, H. G. Pointing. ’22, Dutton. 

Japanese Impressions, P. A. Couchoud. ’21, Lane. 

Making of Modern Japan, J. H. Gubbins. ’22, Lippincott. 

Mysterious Japan, J. L. Street. °21, Doubleday. 

W hat Shall I Think of Japan, G. Gleason. ’21, Macmillan. 

Foundations of Japan, J. W. Robertson Scott. ’22, Appleton. 

What Japan Wants, F. S. Kuno. ’21, Crowell. 

New Japanese Peril, S. Osborne. ’21, Macmillan. 

Sea Power in the Pacific, H. C. Bywater. ’21, Houghton. 

China, Japan and Korea, J. O. P. Bland. ’21, Scribner. 

Japan, Real and Imaginary, S. Greenbie. ’20, Harper. 

Letters from China and Japan, J. Dewey. ’20, Putnam. 

Modern Japan, W. M. Govern. ’20, Scribner. 

Japanese Impressions, P. L. Couchard. ’22, Dodd. 

Japan and the United States, P. J. Treat. ’21, Houghton. 


KOREA 


THE JAPANESE ADMINISTRATION 
“The Land of the Morning Calm” 
OREA, which the Japanese call “Chosen,” is a little 


larger than the State of Kansas, comprising one- 
third of all the land area of the Japanese Empire, 
and has a population of 18,313,800 (1923). 

It is essentially mountainous, and is rich in both anthracite 
and bituminous coal, as well as iron, gold and all the metals. 
It has a fine climate, unusual agricultural opportunities, 
abundant rainfall and exceptional fisheries. All these are 
now being rapidly developed by Japan. 

Japanese Efficiency. Under the Japanese, the Chosen 
railway system of 1,500 miles is one of the best equipped 
and managed railroads in Asia. Comfortable Japanese 
-steamers also ply between Shimonoseki in Japan, to Fusan 
in Korea, from which point the railroad crosses Korea to 
Antong, passing through Seoul. The railroads now connect 
Korea with Europe, via Mukden and the Trans-Siberian 
Railway, as well as with all the important centres of China, 
such as Peking, Shanghai and Canton, thus giving Japan 
opportunity to get her raw materials and to supply the 
market of China and Northern Asia. 

Japan has established seventy-four agricultural centres, 
eight commercial and four technical schools, in all of which 
the Japanese language is used. It has also organised rural 
banks, the number of Korean depositors having multiplied 
several times. Korea, under Japanese control, has made a 
greater advance in industrial methods within the last decade 
than any other country in Asia. 

In its work of re-forestration, it has pianted half a billion 

165 


166 KORE AS 


trees in areas which the Koreans previously had denuded. 
It has doubled Korea’s foreign trade; doubled the railway 
mileage; made Seoul one of the best paved and modernised 
cities in the Far East; has trebled the fruit trees; multiplied 
the cotton crop by fifty; established sanitary and hygienic 
conditions, and introduced a system of schools. 

This would have been impossible under Chinese or Korean 
rule. Certainly. the average traveller would say that Japan 
had made a great success of her colonising, and that the only 
grievance which the Koreans have is their “‘loss of liberty,” 
when in reality they never had any. 

Japanese Oppression. With this pleasant picture of 
Japan’s successful colonisation comes the darker one in con- 
nection with the ruthless methods of her administration. 
The Japanese have apparently sought to gain their ends by 
denationalising the Koreans and destroying their language, 
literature, customs and individual rights. ‘This has given 
rise to a world scandal concerning Japan’s injustice and 
brutality, from which her reputation has not yet recovered. 
From a hundred sources has come the tragic indictment of 
the savage repression and the brutal methods of the Japanese 
Government in Korea. 

Such a book, for instance, as “Korea’s Fight for Free- 
dom,” by F. A. McKenzie, draws a very unhappy picture 
of the inhuman treatment of thousands of untried prisoners 
made in wholesale arrests on political charges; the floggings 
of women and children; the practical suppression of the 
Korean press in the native language, and the denial of public 
assembly; the enforcing of the Japanese language in all 
schools and business enterprises; the forbidding of the teach- 
ing of Korean history; as well as the burning of villages 
accompanied by the slaughter of innocent men, women and 
children. Religious teaching was almost interdicted, and 
even the singing of such hymns as “Onward, Christian 
Soldiers,” was forbidden. 

Since their occupation the Japanese have so managed the 
reorganisation of land laws, and have hedged the Koreans 


Peeve SE CONTROL 167 


about with so many restrictions in connection with their 
property, that most of the wealth of Korea is rapidly pass- 
ing into Japanese hands. ‘The economic status of the 
Koreans is worse than before the Japanese occupation, and 
as a consequence more than a million and a half of them 
have emigrated to China and Siberia. About eight million 
out of ten million yen in the Postal Savings Bank belong to 
the Japanese, and apparently there is little ahead for Koreans 
except economic exploitation unless there might possibly be 
a change of Japanese policy, or perhaps the almost unthink- 
able outcome of a successful rebellion. 

Japan has begun to recognise that her cruelties and tyran- 
nical methods have been a woeful blunder and has given 
assurance of reform in the Imperial Rescript of August 20, 
1919, although the Koreans and many foreigners doubt its 
sincerity. 

The fact that Japan has tremendously improved general 
conditions does not answer, from the Korean point of view, 
the charge that Japan is still ruling with an iron hand, and 
forcing her methods upon an unreconciled people. Beneath 
the passive resistance of the Koreans, there seems to be a 
' quiet determination to bring about a new era of independ- 
ence, although to the average observer the prospect appears 
hopeless. 

The story of the Japanese annexation of Korea is an 
interesting one. Lest there should be a too sweeping criti- 
cism of Japan’s seizure of Korea, it should be remembered, 
as a matter of justice to Japan, that the Treaty of Ports- 
mouth, in August, 1905, recognised Japan’s “paramount 
political, military and economic interest” in Korea. Imme- 
diately thereafter Japan proclaimed a protectorate over 
Korea and the King and his ministers were forced to sign 
away the independence of the Korean nation. 

In 1908 the Emperor Yi, having secretly sought interven- 
tion at The Hague, temporarily handed over the throne to 
his half-witted son, Yi Kon, called “his Imperial Highness 
Prince Kon.” Then followed a series of retaliations and 


168 KOREA 


assassinations by the Koreans, including among the victims 
the Japanese Governor, Prince Ito, Korea’s best friend. A 
little later Japan formally annexed Korea. ‘There is no 
doubt but that Japan regards this annexation as a political 
necessity in view of Russia’s former aggressive designs upon 
Korea, which, if successful, would have threatened the very 
existence of Japan. 

‘The Japanese think the Koreans weak, deceitful and 
despicable, but there is really much spiritual understanding 
among them. ‘They have moral courage and an unswerving 
devotion to a great religious or patriotic ideal. ‘The very 
meekness of the Koreans is really their moral strength. 

They have been brought up on the idea of a monotheistic 
religion, and the work of the Christian missionaries has on 
that account been much more easy and rapid. Missionary 
work began among them only about forty years ago, but 
there are now nearly five hundred foreign missionaries, three- 
fourths of whom are Americans, and more than 100,000 
Protestant Church members, with a rapidly growing con- 
stituency. ‘These missionaries are really the educators, physi- 
cians, and even the agricultural experts of Korea, and it 
must be said that while the provocation to denounce Japan 
in her brutal methods must have been almost irresistible, the 
missionaries have remained neutral in all political matters. 


THE)» PEOPiaE 


The dress of Korean men seems extremely grotesque, and 
at first glance suggests the queer make-up of a travelling 
circus clown. ‘They wear a long white “Mother Hubbard” 
robe, tied by strings under the arms, and at times a blue 
ribbon about their ankles and waist, and their hair is put up 
in queer top-knots, which is a sign of legal manhood. ‘They 
usually have very long, thin whiskers, great horn-rimmed 
goggles, small transparent “plug” hats, perched on top of 
their heads and tied under the chin, which in wet weather 
look even more ridiculous by being covered with a conical 
oiled paper protection. White baggy trousers tied around 


KOREAN PEOPLE 169 


their ankles and over-large shoes help to complete their 
opera-bouffe costume. “The men in mourning for a father 
or near male relative wear for three years an immense straw 
hat shaped like a toadstool, but there is no symbol of mourn- 
ing for a mother or female relative. They smoke tobacco 
with a pipe having a stem a yard long and a bowl the size 
of a thimble. The men pay little attention to their wives, 
and spend their evenings at theatres and “‘sing-song’”’ houses. 
The Kisang girls and other women of low degree have been 
recognised by law under the Japanese Government, and are 
segregated, as in Japan. 

The women are short, fat, and coarse-haired, wearing 
fantastic white balloon cotton skirts, with very short jackets 
which frequently leave their bosoms entirely nude, although 
the missionaries and the Japanese authorities are trying to 
modify this custom. ‘The better classes wear silk of the most 
diverse colours. 

Koreans warm their homes by fires built under the house, 
giving an evenly warmed floor on which they sit. The 
women use open public wash houses and cold water for their 
laundry work. Long white padded coats worn by the men 
are ripped apart to be ee and are sewed together again 
after laundering. 

It is rather appealing to see this white-robed race of 
passive resistants, wending their way in silence and sadness, 
refusing to be assimilated, and conscious of a growing spirit 
of nationalisation. “They seem ambitionless and dejected, 
but there is an underlying steadfastness which must be taken 
into account. In the old days of the monarchy, many thou- 
sands sat night and day immovable for fourteen days when 
their rights were invaded. It seems to be a case of Ireland 
over again except that the Koreans are passive rather than 
belligerent, with the women even more intensely patriotic 
than the men. 

‘The Koreans are almond-eyed, with rather marked negroid 
features, having an unusually good mentality, some foreign 
residents claiming that it is equal to that of the Japanese. 


170 KOREA 


Their condition of servitude and suppression, however, both 
under the previous Korean monarchy and under the new 
Japanese rule, has produced a sloth and servility that are 
hard to overcome. ‘The lower orders are prone to drink, 
gambling and debauchery, and they are satisfied to live under 
conditions of indescribable filth, so that it is difficult for 
foreigners even to enter their wretched huts. 

But it should be remembered that there are growing num- 
bers of students in the schools and colleges, largely under 
Christian auspices, who are very apt and studious, being 
specially proficient in mathematics, and who are setting 
standards of morality and idealism that augur hopefully for 
the future, 


SEOUL 


Seoul, now named “Keijo” by the Japanese, is in a valley 
enclosed by conical hills and surrounded by a ruined wall 
built six centuries ago, overgrown with vegetation, and so 
imposing that it suggests the great Wall of China. The 
wall is fourteen miles in circumference and from twenty- 
five to forty feet high and has eight gates. 

Seoul is the very “‘soul’”’ of Korea and is a progressive city 
with a population of 271,414 (1923), of whom 73,344 are 
Japanese. ‘There are several decayed but picturesque pal- 
aces, an excellent museum, the usual zoological and botanical 
gardens, some government buildings, and one of the finest 
hotels in Asia. It has wide streets lined with small tinsel- 
like shops. ‘The Chon-No, or “Big Bell” street, going from 
the east gate to the west, divides the city. “This street is so 
named because a large bell, ten feet high, hanging in a 
handsome kiosk, is located there. “The booming of the bell 
can be heard over the city, and for five hundred years it 
sounded the signal for the closing of the city gates. 

The deserted garden, rank with weeds, at the back of the 
North Palace, is the spot where in 1895 the Korean Queen 
was assassinated at the instigation of Viscount Miura, the 
Japanese minister in Korea, although the Japanese Govern- 


SEOUL SIGHTS 171 


ment claims that the crime was committed without its 
authority. 

The North Palace (a permit from the traveller’s con- 
sulate may be necessary for inspection), consisting of a num- 
ber of structures with much intricate carving, is now un- 
occupied and is rapidly decaying. In a fine Lotus Pond is 
a large Summer Pavilion, the roof of which is supported by 
eight rows of granite columns, the general effect being that 
of a floating pavilion. 

In the palace is a large Audience Hall which is unroofed 
and untenanted. ‘Lhere is also a commodious Throne Room 
with high ceilings and with gorgeous multi-coloured decora- 
tions, in the centre of which is a throne cushioned in im- 
perial yellow. 

The East Palace, which is quite apart from the North 
Palace, was the residence of the King and Queen. Its vacant 
throne room and wretched furnishings hardly suggest royalty. 
It is surrounded by a wall with an entrance through an 
Oriental gate. 

The former Emperor, Yi Kon, called Prince Yi after his 
retirement, has recently died, but his son, Prince Heir, the 
last of the royal line, receives a certain official recognition, 
in view of his having been the Crown Prince. He was made 
a lieutenant in the Japanese army, with a large income as- 
sured, and has just married a Japanese princess. Of course 
Japan arranged that he should be educated there,—in fact, 
no Korean students have been allowed to go to any foreign 
country except Japan to be educated. 

The South Ward under the slopes of the South Mountain 
is the “slum” of Korea, where degradation and starvation 
rule unhampered. 

The Legation Quarter is in one of the suburbs where 
the European residences are framed in ornamental gardens. 

A Fine View of the City may be had from Cock’s Comb, 
a commanding hill-top which can be reached by conveyance. 
Here a fine new Shinto temple has been constructed. 

Shopping. Brass articles, candlesticks, teapots, rosewood 


172 KOREA 


chests and unique furniture and exceptionally fine cloudy 
amber are among the purchases having local characteristics. 

The Koreans have little of the artistic sense of the Japan- 
ese. Curiously wrought silver and gold articles, silver finger 
rings with symbols engraved representing good luck, long 
life, etc.; Korean brass candlesticks, teapots, finger bowls, 
fans of Korean translucent vellum paper extremely durable, 
are decidedly characteristic. Prince Yi’s Museum of Fine 
Arts has all sorts of jewellery, curios and useful articles for 
sale. 

The Chosen Hotel is one of the finest in the Far East, 
and is conducted by the Chosen (Korean) Railway Com- 
pany. It will compare favourably, both in cuisine and serv- 
ice, with our best American hotels, there being private baths 
having hot and cold water in connection with every sleeping 
room. 

Railways. It is 274 miles from Fusan to Seoul in excel- 
lent trains, with comfortable sleeper compartments and ex- 
cellent dining car meals. ‘There are no important places 
except Seoul, but the primitive, even the degraded life of 
the natives in the villages and hamlets, has a characteristic 
interest. 

It is 309 miles to Antung (Shingishu) where the railway 
crosses the swift Yalu river over to Manchurian territory. 

Sanitation. Purely native dishes should not be eaten 
nor water or milk be drunk unless it has been boiled. ‘The 
Japanese hotels, however, use every precaution. 

‘Hot dog’ is to be taken literally as dog meat is a staple. 

The Korean language is akin to the Japanese, both 
being of Turanean origin. ‘The Korean literature is limited 
in quantity and on the whole of inferior quality. 


RECENT BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Americans in Eastern Asia, T. Dennett. ’22, Macmillan. 
Case of Korea, H. Chung. ’21, Revell. 
Official Guide to Eastern Asia. °16, Putnam. 


CHINA 


“The Rip Van Winkle among the nations” 


foe tomy AND GOVERNMENT 


HINA has five major divisions: Manchuria in the 
C Northeast, Mongolia in the North, Sinkiang in the 

West, Tibet in the Southwest, and China Proper 
in the Southeast. “The new Chinese Republic flag has five 
stripes, red, yellow, blue, white, black, to signify the five 
great Chinese races: Mongol, Manchu, Turki, Tibetan 
and Chinese. ‘There is little cohesion among these people, 
as they differ in origin, language, characteristics and re- 
ligion. 

The three outlying districts, Mongolia, Sinkiang, and 
Tibet, have a combined area of 2,500,000 square miles, or 
two-thirds of the entire area of the Republic, but have 
only seven per cent. of the population. Manchuria is very 
sparsely populated, although rich in resources, and seems to 
have unlimited room for colonial expansion. Japan, how- 
ever, which controls Manchuria, and claims to be in des- 
perate need of an outlet for her surplus population, sends 
less than one-hundredth of the immigrants there that China 
does. 

China proper has eighteen provinces. Although it only 
has one-third of the area of the Greater China, it has nine- 
tenths of the population. 

The Manchus have been the rulers of China for nearly 
three centuries. “They were invited at the beginning of the 
sixteenth century to help the Ming Emperor put down a 
local rebellion, after which they remained and in 1644 seized 
the throne. ‘They compelled the Chinese, whom they re- 

: 173 


174 CRT Na 


garded as their inferiors, to have the front of the head 
shaved and wear a queue as a sign of submission. 

But with the coming of modern influences, the Manchus, 
who slowly had been degenerating, proved themselves un- 
equal to the new conditions. The last emperor, Kuang-hsi, 
who was emperor only in name and rather feeble-minded, 
died in 1908, on the same day as the notorious but masterful 
Empress Dowager, popularly known as “Old Buddha,” who 
kept him a prisoner and who timed his death with hers. 
Prince Chun, as Regent for the Boy Emperor who suc- 
ceeded him, helped to hasten the inevitable. A Republic 
was proclaimed late in 1911, with Dr. Sun Yat-sen as Pro- 
visional President. For the sake of harmony he resigned 
the following February and was succeeded by Yuan Shih- 
kai. 

Yuan Shih-kai had a powerful personality, but was 
over-ambitious and treacherous, and China soon found her- 
self in troubled waters. 

A Senate, the members of which were to serve six years, 
and a House of Representatives, whose members were to 
serve three years, were elected under the new Constitution. 
In the Spring of 1913 these representatives met in Peking 
in the most formal and dignified manner, mostly wearing 
silk hats and frock coats. Yuan Shih-kai, however, soon 
began to override the Parliament and when he met with 
protest, he denounced the members of the People’s Party as 
rebels and ordered them to resign. As they constituted the 
majority in the Parliament, it ceased to function, and Yuan 
Shih-kai was left in complete autocratic possession. 

Dr. Sun Yat-sen and his followers withdrew to Canton, 
and they have since concentrated their efforts upon trying to 
restore the Chinese Republic to its former status. ‘Their 
activities, however, have necessarily been confined to the 
region south of the Yangtze River. Since that time there 
has been an intermittent civil war between the North and 
the South. 

Yuan Shih-kai appointed the Tuchuns as his military 


Peete IVGI AIS TORY 175 


leaders in the various provinces, arming them with dicta- 
torial powers. ‘The remnant of Parliament was dissolved, 
and an Assembly supposed to be elected by popular vote, and 
a Council of State appointed by himself, were to constitute 
the new Government. ‘The Assembly was never elected, 
and even the Council was short-lived, and Yuan became the 
absolute dictator of China’s destiny. 

Even as President he was a despot. He hated Christians 
and held fast to his native superstitions. He had enough 
children by his various wives to fill most of the government 
offices, and made many millions of taels by ‘‘squeeze.”’ 

During his entire administration Yuan was fostering a 
movement to restore the monarchy with himself as Emperor, 
and on December 12, 1915, the monarchy was announced 
and Yuan had a special crown and signet ring prepared and 
was to have been crowned on the following February. But 
the astute Yuan found that he had overreached himself. 
South China revolted, his own army deserted to the rebels; 
even the people of the North resented his presumption, 
and as a result the monarchy was abandoned. In June, 
1916, Yuan Shih-kai died, perhaps largely from “‘loss of 
face.” 

At the time of his funeral procession great hampers of 
slips of paper, punctured with holes, were scattered as money 
for evil spirits, the superstitious belief being that they had 
to pass through every hole before getting possession of his 
soul. 

His death seemed to augur well for a reunion of the 
North and South factions, and an effort was made to restore 
the single Parliament at Peking. Friction, however, soon 
arose and plots and counterplots raged furiously. One of 
these put the former boy-Emperor on the throne, but this 
régime lasted only a week. 

Tsao Kun and his subordinate, Marshal Wu Pei-fu, join- 
ing forces with Marshal Chang Tso-lin, together forced the 
leaders of the Anfu Party, which was under the domination 
of Japan, to take refuge with the Japanese Legation. ‘Then 


176 CHINA 


friction arose between T’sao Kun and Chang ‘Tso-lin and 
Chang was forced to withdraw his army beyond the Great 
Wall. ‘The President, Li Yuan-lung, was compelled to 
resign and there was no President of China in 1923 from 
the middle of June to early October, when Tsao Kun was 
elected to that office, largely through colossal briberies. 

Hostilities also began between the North and the South, 
but continued only in a sporadic way. In reality it has been 
a struggle for place and pelf, both in the North and South,— 
a sordid mercenary struggle, with little suggestion of pa- 
triotism and solicitude for the public welfare. 

The Tuchuns. Each ‘Tuchun or Governor, of the 
eighteen provinces, while in name responsible to Peking, is 
an autocrat within the bounds of his own province, raising 
his own revenues, and disposing of them with but little 
regard for the wishes or best interests of Peking. Each 
maintains his own army, although about ten per cent. of 
its cost in each case is paid by the Peking Government. 
Chang Tso-lin, once a bandit but now the Tuchun of 
Mukden, has a personal army of 200,000 men. ‘The fact is, 
that most of these “ITuchuns are ready to espouse the cause 
of the highest bidder, and as they have aggregate forces of 
over a million men, they hold the balance of power. 

‘The great and burning problem in China is how to con- 
trol the rapacity and arrogance of the Tuchuns and make 
them amenable to the Government at Peking. 

Foreign Jurisdiction. While China is in name an in- 
dependent Republic, large parts of her territory are occupied 
by foreign Powers, and the Chinese Government, as a whole, 
is under the dictation of these Powers in such matters as 
tariff, revenues, foreign loans and jurisdiction over for- 
eigners. The Portuguese have Macao; Great Britain holds 
Hong-Kong; Russia occupies the Chinese territory north of 
the Amur River; France controls Indo-China; and Japan 
has taken over Formosa, the Liaotung Peninsula and Man- 
churia. In 1904, Great Britain, represented by Colonel Sir 
Francis Younghusband, also seized ‘Tibet, and secured 


RECENT. HISTORY 17 


practical governmental control, although ‘Tibet is. still 
nominally entitled to five representatives in the Chinese 
Parliament. 

China cannot, as matters now stand, change her tariff on 
any single article of commerce without the consent of thir- 
teen nations. As a result, she has only a nominal tariff of 
five per cent., ad valorem, a duty on salt, and receipts from 
post offices, which are proving entirely inadequate to her 
needs. The International Conference has, however, con- 
sented to an additional two and a half per cent. increase in 
the Chinese customs duties. 

Owing to the greed of the Tuchuns of the various prov- 
inces, only a negligible proportion of the taxes raised reaches 
Peking, and sometimes these Tuchuns, although rolling in 
ill-gotten gains, make insistent inroads on the Peking treas- 
ury, which Peking dares not refuse. 

In 1899 the United States, represented by Secretary of 
State John Hay, announced the policy of the “Open Door,” 
which stayed the tide that would inevitably have resulted in 
the swallowing up of the whole of China. Great Britain, 
and later the other Powers, accepted this policy, though 
somewhat reluctantly. | 

The relation of the United States to China has consist- 
ently been of an altruistic character, and she has steadily 
striven to sustain China’s sovereignty and integrity. Li 
Hung-chang, after the Boxer Rebellion, used these words: 
“T tremble to think what might have been China’s fate but 
for the stand taken by the American Government.” 

The Boxer Rebellion. ‘These inroads on Chinese ter- 
ritory finally created a widespread resentment that resulted 
in the Boxer Movement, during which many hundreds of 
foreigners, including traders and missionaries,—a few of 
them Americans, were murdered. ‘The story of how 
Europeans in Peking were besieged in the legations until 
rescued by the Allied Relief Expedition is a thrilling 
one. 

Immense reparations amounting to $333,000,000, as well 


178 CHINA 


as humiliating restrictions, were forced upon China as 4 re- 
sult. The United States was the only power that refused 
to accept the indemnity assigned as her share, which was 
$25,000,000. The United States arranged with China to 
use this fund for college education in China and America. 
The Tsing Hua College (known also as the Indemnity 
College) was established in 1909 seven miles from Peking, 
and 460 boys were enrolled. In the first eleven years, 656 
students were sent to America. “They have five fine build- 
ings including a ‘‘Roosevelt’’ gymnasium. ‘This college is 
one of the proofs of America’s just and altruistic attitude 
toward China. 

In May, 1924, Congress remitted the balance of the in- 
demnity of $13,655,473, and a Board of Trustees was ap- 
pointed, composed equally of Americans and Chinese, to 
administer it in the interests of higher education. Although 
this magnanimous action has not dispelled the hostility of the 
Chinese, as expressed in strikes and riots against foreigners 
in the early summer of 1925, Americans all over China have 
been treated with unusual consideration, 


JAPAN’S RELATION POs tia 


Japan in its relation to China has been moved by the fol- 
lowing four principles and purposes: economic exploitation, 
territorial expansion, political control and her domination 
of an Asiatic Monroe Doctrine. 

In relation to China, Japan proposed ‘‘a Defensive Alli- 
ance wherein Japan will assume the responsibility of safe- 
guarding China’s territory and maintaining the peace and 
order of China. China will absolutely have nothing to fear 
in the future of having pressure brought against her by the 
Foreign Powers. It is only thus that permanent peace can 
be secured in the Far East.” 

Viscount Ishii at that time was quoted as saying, “Japan 
could not regard with equanimity the organisation of an 
efficient Chinese army, nor could Japan fail to regard with 


CHINA AND JAPAN 179 


uneasiness a liberation of the economic activities of a nation 
of 400,000,000 people.” 

The Twenty-one Demands. Considering the opportu- 
nity afforded by the World War, Japan, on January 18, 
1915, because such an opportunity “would not occur again 
for hundreds of years to come” presented the famous, or 
rather infamous, TI‘wenty-one Demands. ‘These Demands 
had been made an issue in the general election held in Japan 
a short time before, in which the vote overwhelmingly sup- 
ported Count Okuma, who was their sponsor. Among them 
was Group V, which Japan afterwards withdrew because 
of the stubborn resistance by China, and because of the 
strong opposition of the World Powers. 

Japan, however, had declared solemnly to the Powers be- 
fore her ‘I'wenty-one Demands were published, that she had 
only eleven instead of twenty-one, and when they were first 
presented to the Powers she entirely omitted the fifth group, 
long before she withdrew them because of the opposition 
of the Powers and the protest of the Chinese. 

The first article of Group V reads: ‘“The Chinese Gov- 
ernment shall employ influential Japanese as overseers in 
political, financial and military affairs.” In short, it was 
a seizure of the reins of political and financial power. In 
withdrawing Group V, Japan distinctly stated that she did 
not give up her policy of political control, but merely agreed 
that this Group should be postponed for “later negotia- 
tions.” 

‘These I'wenty-one Points constituted the most outrageous 
and sinister demands ever made on a helpless country. “They 
proved, however, to be a boomerang, in that they alienated 
China, produced a boycott against Japanese commerce among 
the Chinese several years later, and at the same time lost 
the confidence of the world in Japan’s honourable inten- 
tions. ‘These Demands, had they been accepted as originally 
phrased, would have established a Japanese Protectorate over 
China. 


As a result, mass meetings of protest were held in all 


180 CHINA 


parts of China. Japan finally agreed to withdraw the fifth 
Group of Demands, but Peking remained obdurate, and on 
May 7, 1915, Japan announced an ultimatum. Peking, 
having vainly waited for help from the Allied Powers, was 
obliged to yield. The unfortunate Lansing-Ishii Agree- 
ment of November 15, 1917, did not help the cause of pros- 
trate China, but this was repudiated by Secretary of State 
Hughes early in 1921, when he insisted on restoring the 
“Open Door” policy and thus won back the alienated friend- 
ship of China. 

Japan Modifies Her Purpose. With the return of the 
Powers to the Far East stage of action at the close of the 
War, and the forming of the new International Banking 
Consortium, the efforts of Japan to strengthen her hold on 
China were largely neutralised. 

It is possible that Japan is realising her untenable posi- 
tion. The Versailles Treaty gave Shantung to Japan, 
largely through the desire of President Wilson to win 
Japan’s support of his proposed League of Nations. China 
at this Treaty conference, represented by the Young China 
leaders, resisted this to the last, as naturally they saw no 
reason why they should lose a valuable province as a back- 
handed payment for joining the Allies. ‘The Senate of the 
United States also refused to ratify the Treaty. Japan 
later at the Washington Conference finally gave way and 
agreed to withdraw from Shantung entirely within five 
years, even giving up the control of the Shantung railway 
which was bought back by China. 

There can be no fair criticism, however, of Japan’s policy 
of the commercial exploitation of China. All the Powers 
are interested in its commercial development, and Japan 
sorely needs the iron, coal and steel which China can fur- 
nish her to their mutual advantage. 

Since the fiasco of the “Twenty-one Demands and the 
losses in commerce due to the widespread boycott against 
Japanese goods, Japan has sought to be conciliatory, as yet 
with only negligible success. It must not be assumed, how- 


Senet tN DI JAPAN 181 


ever, that the anti-foreign uprisings in China will not be 
used by Japan in making an appeal to unite the forces of 
the yellow race against the white, Japan agreeing fully to 
recognise China’s automony. 

Is Japan Superior to China? Japan fails to realise 
that the Chinese, disorganised and undeveloped as they seem 
to be, are the equal of the Japanese in intellectual and moral 
calibre and are superior to them in physical power, as well 
as far surpassing them in industry and in adaptation to 
commerce. Under these circumstances it would seem utter 
folly to imagine that Japan could subjugate a population 
of this kind six times larger than her own, and that they 
would submit, as the Koreans have, to her sovereign 
control. 

It is practically a certainty that China will become a 
great nation within the next four or five decades, and her 
attitude towards Japan and the Western Powers, when she 
finds herself, will depend on their attitude toward her in 
her present helplessness and lack of organisation. Unless 
Japan disavows her purpose to dominate China, there will 
come a day of reckoning that forebodes disaster. The 
question fifty years from now will not be whether Ja- 
pan will control China, but whether China will absorb 
Japan. 

Sir Robert Hart, who was financial adviser to the Chi- 
nese Government for nearly half a century, said in 1900, 
“In fifty years’ time there will be millions in serried ranks 
and war’s panoply to answer the call of the Chinese Gov- 
ernment.” ‘This would indicate his belief that China would 
rapidly become unified and have a formidable war organisa- 
tion to maintain her national rights. 


PN Se erie 


China at present is in a worse condition than at any time 
since the Republic was inaugurated. She is politically and 
financially bankrupt. China, in order to get the Powers to 


182 CHINA 


relinquish territories, or give whole-hearted co-operation, 
must unite the North and the South, must establish a stable 
Government, must shake off the strangle-hold of the Tuchuns, 
must reorganise her finances and pay her debts, and must 
rise above the inefficiency and graft with which her gov- 
ernment is now honeycombed. 

The Powers were committed by the Washington Con- 
ference to “maintain the sovereignty, independence and the 
commercial and economic integrity of China” and help her 
in developing her resources. Yet conditions have never been 
so threatening as now. Here is an industrious population, 
here are fabulous resources among the richest in the world, 
here are racial abilities of a high order, and yet a state of 
anarchy exists that threatens not only the integrity of China, 
but the peace of the world. 

The main difficulty is that China scrapped the monarchy, 
and with it all the national administrative machinery, and 
suddenly changed her Government without any preparedness 
whatever. At best it will take decades for so large a coun- 
try to be prepared for democratic institutions that will make 
for national stability. 

China is beginning to see that a real democracy requires 
widespread education, and this means a simplifying of the 
written language and the printing of publications in a single 
vernacular understood by all. She needs a new culture 
movement, as well as a new social structure of marriage and 
the family. She needs above all a new ethical conception 
of Government as being a sacred trust. ‘The intelligentsia 
are seeking to bring about such improved conditions, and the 
Students’ Movement and the Christian missionaries are giv- 
ing a tremendous impetus in this direction. 

Whether the Republic will be permanent is an open ques- 
tion. At present the government at Peking is merely a 
sham. It continues to be the foot ball of selfish and con- 
tending Tuchuns. Many people believe that China will 
gravitate back to a monarchy, the nation’s mental habit of 
4,000 years asserting itself. In that case it is possible that 


NOTABLE MEN 183 


the former Boy Emperor may again be called to assume the 
purple. ‘The recent internal upheavals can be expressed in 
a few words. ‘The two great war lords, Chang T’so-lin and 
Wu-Pai-fu, have been at sword’s point for several years. 
Late in 1924, Feng-Yu-hsiang, the “Christian general’? who 
had been associated with Wu-Pai-fu, suddenly deserted him, 
on the basis that Chang would give him a free hand at 
Peking. He suddenly descended upon Peking, captured 
the city, banished the young emperor, and undertook to re- 
organise the Republic. But after Wu was overwhelmed, 
Chang marched upon the city, assumed control, and made 
Tuan Chi-jui provisional President, Feng in the meantime 
withdrawing but holding all adjacent territories. 

There is now a possibility (July, 1925) of a civil war 
between Feng and the forceful but unscrupulous Chang. 
Feng has about 175,000 men, well organised but somewhat 
lacking in munitions, and is said to be backed by the Russian 
Soviet. Chang has about 200,000 men well equipped and 
is supported by Japan. It is reported that Wu is apt to 
take sides with his former subordinate Feng, who proved 
insubordinate. 

Feng is in possession of the Northeast section of China 
(Chang holding Manchuria and the Northwest). He has 
restored law and order in his entire district, suppressed 
banditry, collected taxes equably, and wiped out the opium 
evils. ‘There is no doubt at all that he is intent on unifying 
China under an administration of reform and justice, and 
will co-operate with men only so far as he thinks they are 
working to that end. How far he will seek to co-operate 
with foreigners, remains to be seen. 

Feng became a Christian under the teaching of John R. 
Mott in 1912 at Peking, and in 1922 he proclaimed Chris- 
tianity as the State religion of the province of Honan, and 
has enforced its principles with an iron hand. He estab- 
lished night schools and industrial schools, including some 
for women where weaving, dressmaking, tailoring, domestic 
science and other practical branches are taught. ‘Theatres 


184 CHINA 


are closed, liquor and opium forbidden, and the wearing of 
silk is discouraged as a useless extravagance. He carries a 
big, worn Bible, of which he is a constant student, and he 
himself conducts regular Bible classes among his officers 
and provides religious instruction for his troops. His five 
main articles of life are religion, work, education, discipline 
and cleanliness. He is a man over six feet tall, very mas- 
terful, and maintains a high standard of order and discipline. 

Sun Yat-sen, who died in May, 1925, was regarded as an 
idealist, but was much more of an egotist and adventurer. 
Nevertheless, he was a commanding figure, and if he had 
lived, he might have gained supreme control. He was 
hand-in-glove with the Russian Soviet. ‘There is almost no 
doubt that he would have sought to present an ulti- 
matum to the Powers abrogating all extra-territorial 
treaties, and taken steps to banish all foreigners. 


BRIGANDAGE 


The brigands at Lincheng in Shantung, in May, 1923, 
captured and held for ransom thirty foreigners, twelve of 
them Americans. Fortunately they were all released with- 
out having suffered personal injury. ‘The Powers have made 
a three-fold demand upon the Government of China,—first, 
damages; second, future security; and third, the dismissal 
of all responsible officials. “The Chinese reply states that 
the Military Governor of Shantung and other responsible 
officials have been dismissed, and that all the provincial au- 
thorities have been notified to redouble their vigilance. In 
February, 1925, the Peking Government paid $300,000 
(Chinese) as a full settlement of claims, the American vic- 
tims receiving $144,000. 

Of course such things happen in almost every country, 
and too much emphasis should not be laid upon this episode. 
Probably travel in China will be all the safer because of the 
warning which the Chinese Government has had. 

The Shantung brigand episode is due to the fact that the 


rer rOAL CORRUPTION 185 


Mandarin control has ceased and the awe of foreigners has 
gone, and this, together with the fact that these bands 
of brigands, who are largely deserters from the Chinese 
army, had become reckless and desperate, because they had 
not had their wages paid for months together, is respon- 


sible. 


GENERAL PARALYSIS 


The political disorder is reflected in a breaking down of 
the industrial and economic life. amines in districts have 
recently prevailed with almost no government relief. The 
construction and improvement of railroads are in abeyance, 
and transportation and irrigation are partially paralysed. 
Factories and mines in some cases have been commandeered 
by impecunious generals. 

The Government has no capital with which to develop 
industries or to build railroads, and foreign capital, in view 
of the government collapse, is too timid, outside of the ter- 
ritory of the few foreign concessions, to enter the field. 
Schools are in a deplorable condition, with insufficient and 
‘unpaid teachers. ‘The mission schools and institutions, to- 
gether with a few government colleges, are the only ones 
functioning normally. “The moral life of the people is 
visibly deteriorating and even great centres like Shang- 
hai are abandoning the moral conservatism of the past 
and rushing headlong into the grossest materialism and 
licence. 

Official corruption or ‘“‘squeeze” which is on so colossal 
a scale, has been the rule through many centuries. Political 
graft is due to the Chinese standard of ethics, which lays 
stress on a man’s duty to his immediate family and appar- 
ently has no concern for the public at large. ‘This is a 
strange “Dr. Jekyl and Mr. Hyde” dualism, in view of the 
fact that personal honesty and trustworthiness are a marked 
feature of the life of individual Chinese. “The Chinese mer- 


(a9 


chants need only a “yes” or ‘“‘no” for large business transac- 


186 CHINA 


tions, a little slip of paper commonly answering for a legal 
deed in the transfer of property. 

The degeneracy of the Chinese Government has been 
well illustrated by the fact that on October 5, 1923, Mar- 
shal Tsao Kun, the northern military chief, was elected 
President of China by a Parliamentary majority of fifty 
more votes than the Constitutional number requires. It is 
an open secret that most of these votes were purchased on 
the basis of a payment of five thousand dollars (Mex.) to 
a majority of the 480 senators and members of Parliament 
who voted favourably to elect him. 

Such wholesale bribery, even for China, furnishes a 
weapon for the enemies of the newly elected President, 
which will tend to continue the strife among Chinese 
political factions. 

The strikes which had their beginnings at Shanghai in 
May have spread all over China, and the situation is fraught 
with danger and disaster. At one time nearly 250,000 la- 
bourers were on strike in Shanghai. 

The strikes originally broke out in the Japanese-owned 
mills employing 40,000 workers, eighty per cent. of whom 
are women and children. ‘There is no question that there 
was no regard for the workers in the way of sanitation and 
the safeguarding of the rights of employés. Of the forty- 
nine cotton mills in Shanghai, twenty were owned outright 
by the Japanese and they dominated many of the others. 
Only four are British. 

The Soviet influence has become strong all over China 
and it has capitalised the discontent and unrest in creating 
hatred of foreigners. “The constructive influences of the 
Washington Conference were, unfortunately, largely 
thwarted because France refused to sign the Nine Power 
‘Treaty, which was to rehabilitate China. 

There has been a growing national consciousness under 
the leadership of students, expressing itself in anti-foreign 
riots especially directed against Great Britain, Americans 
apparently escaping most of the ill-will. There is a wide- 


THE CONSORTIUM 187 


spread desire to unite the antagonistic armies of China in 
presenting a solid front against the Powers and driving all 
foreigners out of the country. 


CONSERVING FORCES 


One of the conserving forces toward Chinese unity is the 
present national resentment toward Japan, which found ex- 
pression in the boycott of 1919, and still widely manifests 
itself. Transportation, postal and telegraphic systems, 
steamboats, the new education, a tendency toward a uniform 
Mandarin language, together with a new development in 
industrialism, are also beginning to awaken China. 

After all, China has survived through the thousands of 
years under much the same conditions, and has actually 
“Chinafied” its conquerors. Fundamentally, the Chinese 
have moral ideals, based on Confucianism and the precepts 
of Christianity recently introduced. ‘The Chinese will listen 
to an appeal to reason and justice, and their qualities of 
industry, thrift, trade capacity and adaptation to new con- 
ditions will be a saving factor. 

The Banking Consortium is perhaps the most hopeful 
of the conserving forces. It had its rise in June, 1918, 
when the State Department at Washington called together 
representatives of the six greatest banking corporations in the 
United States. ‘This led to the inviting of Great Britain, 
France and Japan to join the Consortium. Representatives 
of these countries met in New York City in October, 1920, 
at which time the desire of Belgium and China to be in- 
cluded was favourably considered. 

The Consortium means harmonious co-operation of the 
great Powers in solving the financial problems of China, 
the reassertion of the validity of the Open Door policy, the 
internationalisation of Chinese railways and financial affairs, 
and the checking of Japan’s purpose to dominate China 
through finance. It is to be hoped that it may lead to an 
international supervision of China, much as the relation 


188 CHINA 


of the United States to Cuba, until such time as China can 
set her house in order and assume complete charge of her 
own affairs. 

_ Foreign Intervention. Foreigners are demanding in- 
tervention in order to stabilise conditions and correct the 
colossal evils arising from political graft. Mr. Bland esti- 
mated in 1921 that during eight previous years, twenty-two 
Tuchuns and their officials “squeezed” enough money out 
of the public funds to pay four-fifths of China’s national 
debt, and yet she is continually borrowing and giving fabu- 
lously rich concessions as securities. It is claimed that out 
of the revenue paid in to Peking, less than five per cent. is 
actually used for administrative purposes. 

It should be remembered, however, that China’s debt, even 
if her poverty is considered, is small, in view of the fact 
that her national obligations of $1,900,000,000 mean only 
$4.75 per person, while the debt of Japan is $50, the United 
States $433 (federal debt only), France $1,310, and Great 
Britain $1,440 per person. China has recently made an 
application to the Powers for a new loan of $1,204,000,000. 


INDUSTRIAL ANDY CUi 
PAC T Orns 


Commercial Possibilities. China has great commercial 
possibilities. “The late Dr. Sun Yat-sen in his recent book 
“The International Development of China,” has given a 
very statesmanlike statement of China’s needs, claiming that 
she required a hundred thousand miles of railroad and a 
million miles of macadam highways as well as improved 
harbours, canals and systems of irrigation. Of course such 
development would take capital running into many billions 
of dollars and must necessarily be slow. 

The Chinese people are comparatively poor, having a total 
income of about $12,000,000,000, or less than one-fifth of 
that of the people of the United States, although China has 


SOCIAL FACTORS 189 


more than three times its population. Chinese resources, 
however, are still sufficient and her credit is still sound 
enough to warrant a loan of $5,000,000,000 to be grad- 
ually issued to her, after her Government is unified and 
stabilised. 

Resources. Sometimes the resources of China are rather 
exaggerated. It has been estimated that her total potential 
supply of coal would amount to nearly fifty billions of tons, 
but this is only one-eighth of that of the United States, and 
one-third of that of Great Britain, although her proportion 
of anthracite is extremely large. 

China has perhaps one-fourth of the iron resources of the 
United States, one-third of that of France and Germany, 
and four-fifths of that of Great Britain. Some authorities 
make estimates of coal and iron double or treble the amounts 
here indicated. In silver, copper, lead, zinc, gold, etc., her 
resources are rather meagre and what forests she has left are 
not very accessible. 

The strong point in China’s prospects is in her agriculture, 
in which eighty-five per cent. of her people are engaged. 
She is the largest tea producing country of the world and 
her production of cotton is exceeded only by the United 
States and India. 

Although her coal and iron resources are not as great as 
several other countries named, there is no question but that 
China promises to be one of the great nations of the earth 
when her resources have become developed, and that Shang- 
hai and Hong-Kong will be world ports that may equal 
New York and London. From the fact of her resources 
and her cheap labour, she seems destined to be a big 
factor in supplying the markets of the world, and eventu- 
ally may threaten the commercial supremacy of western 
nations. 

Western Influences. Receptions are given by the 
President of the Republic of China to foreigners quite after 
the western fashion, there being greetings by handshaking, 


190 CHINA 


the partaking of extremely elaborate refreshments, and Chi- 
nese theatricals of “all star’ casts. Foreign cooking, 
clothes, games, furniture, architecture and interior decora- 
tions are becoming common among the more intelligent Chi- 
nese. Women, however, keep more to their national costume 
than do the men, but fur coats, the matching of colours, 
together with foreign ribbons and ornaments, are coming 
into vogue. The Chinese are also taking up our games and 
athletics. Five million sets of playing cards were imported 
in a single year. Foreign music is being introduced and the 
opportunity for the social mingling of sexes which was for- 
merly prohibited, is becoming common. Foreign medicine, 
hygiene and sanitation are coming into use and foreign hos- 
pitals, which formerly were dreaded, are now eagerly 
patronised. 

Chinese versions of western plays like “Uncle Tom’s 
Cabin” are very popular and American moving pictures have 
become the rage. ‘The students in colleges write their own 
plays and give dramatic performances, sometimes on special 
occasions presenting Shakesperean dramas. 

The Inscrutable Chinese. The Chinese are silent and 
inscrutable but soon win the confidence and affection of for- 
eigners. ‘They are very patient and philosophical and know 
how to wait. They have “a saving sense of humour” but 
they like to “‘save their face,” and will not easily endure 
humiliation. One must use polite and extravagant phrases 
even in administering rebuke. ‘They are usually willing to 
compromise, but when they make a stand, it is almost im- 
possible to move them. ‘Their chief faults are a foolish 
egotism and a sense of national superiority, a most lamentable 
proneness to political corruption and a seeming lack of capac- 
ity for organised action, especially in politics. 

Homes. ‘The houses of the poor, except in large cities, 
are usually made of mud or broken brick mixed with mud, 
the roofs being covered with tiles or sometimes merely with 
lime and coke spread on rude mats. ‘They are usually of 


STVIGHLIVW ONIGTING ONIAYYVO NVINOM ASHNITHOD 











CHINESE WOMEN IgT 


one story and often contain only one room. ‘They have no 
chimney, as little fire is used except for cooking, which is 
done in small charcoal braziers. A raised platform with a 
coarse mat of reeds serves as bed, and a rude table, a stool 
or two and a primitive wardrobe form the furniture. ‘The 
very poor make their homes in sampans and junks, as well 
as in caves. The homes of the rich, on the other hand, are 
quite elaborate, richly furnished with embroidered hangings 
and carved teak-wood furniture, and give evidence of a 
highly developed oriental culture. 


WOMEN 


The history of China shows many influential women as 
having been leaders in her activities. In the Chinese bio- 
graphical dictionary of 1628 volumes, 376 were given over 
to Chinese women. 

Confucius taught the equality of women, the Chinese 
word wife literally meaning “equal.’”’ One of the maxims 
that is current is “Love your bride as you would your 
brother.” That a woman in theory (though not in prac- 
tice) is regarded as man’s equal is indicated by the fact that 
a woman preserves her own name after her marriage. 

The dominating principle which underlies Chinese mar- 
riage is the perpetuation of the family, and the people do 
not need to be warned of the danger of “‘race suicide.” In 
189 A.D. a law was passed which had only temporary en- 
forcement, making the poll tax of single women between 
fifteen and thirty years of age five times greater than that 
of married women. By tradition and custom parents see to 
it even now that their daughters are married, and arrange- 
ments are usually made either between the parents of the 
prospective bride and groom or by go-betweens, the young 
people very often never having seen each other before the day 
of marriage. While this seems an arbitrary method, the 
fact remains that divorce is much less common than it is: 


192 CHINA 


among Western people who have the privilege of social 
intercourse and of making their own matrimonial choices. 
This is due largely to the fact of the inbred habit of sub- 
mission among Chinese women. 

Under the Chinese custom a man might put away his 
wife for seven reasons, among which were barrenness, disre- 
gard for the husband’s parents, a suspicious temper and 
talkativeness. Divorce, however, is infrequent, the Chinese 
being scandalised by our American divorce system. At the 
same time there is widespread concubinage, a man’s finances 
determining whether he may have one or many concubines. 

The Women’s Patriotic Association in ‘Tientsin, repre- 
senting many hundreds of the highest class of Chinese 
women, refused to admit concubines, although some of them 
were wealthy and might be generous and influential mem- 
bers. ‘The objection was based upon the grounds that unless 
concubinage were abolished the family system and even- 
tually the nation would be destroyed. 

The old custom of domestic slavery is gradually going 
out of practice. “This meant the buying of a girl between 
five and ten years of age from her parents and making her 
a houtehold drudge, with the prospect of later becoming 
her master’s concubine, or being resold into a life of shame 
by her mistress. The infanticide of girls, formerly so com- 
mon, is also getting to be exceptional. 

Footbinding is still common and begins at the age of four. 
The foot is bound very tightly after doubling the four 
smaller toes under the foot. It means intense pain for sev- 
eral years, and as a result the Chinese woman must always 
hobble about her tasks. It is supposed to represent the 
acme of aristocratic refinement. “There is a strong move- 
ment against this custom by the missionaries, aided by the 
growing fondness even of young girls for athletics. ‘The 
Government has also discouraged footbinding as well as the 
wearing of the queue, and both are passing out of fashion. 
The women of China are slowly coming to the front, already 


CHINESE LANGUAGE 193 


having special publications like the Chinese Ladies’ Journal, 
and the Peking Woman’s Paper, a daily periodical which 
is edited and published by women. 

About 2000 B.c. a law was passed forbidding women to 
gather in public assemblies lest they should talk politics. 
Now women students have formed great organisations hay- 
ing largely a political purpose. Women are beginning to 
insist upon the franchise and in March, 1921, 700 women 
forced their way into the Canton Assembly demanding 
the right to vote. 

Women have better co-educational recognition in China 
than in England, or even New England. In the Peking 
Government University, for instance, women are admitted 
to examinations and degrees on the same basis as men, and 
there are women professors and teachers. There is natu- 
rally a strong movement for co-education because there 
are so few schools; otherwise the girls would naturally be 
crowded out. 

The new position of women is indicated in many specific 
ways as the following examples will show: 

The wife of the former president of the Republic and 
the wife of the ex-Premier were honorary chairman and 
president of the Chinese Red Cross Society. 

In Canton over forty factories making articles of clothing 
are owned and managed by women, having from ten to fifty 
women employés each. 

A Women’s Savings Bank with a capital of $2,000,000 
has been opened recently by the women of Peking. 

There are over 200 Chinese girl students in the United 
States. 


Basu CATION 


Language. A Commission of over a hundred men from 
various sections of China is endeavouring to unify both the 
spoken and written languages so as to make one national lan- 


194 CHINA 


guage. At present there are over a hundred languages and 
dialects, which are so distinctive that a Chinaman can under- 
stand only his own and none of the others. 

As the Chinese language is monosyllabic, the new Man- 
darin language system which has been proposed, using thirty- 
nine phonetic symbols or letters with a system of dots,— 
the position of which will determine the pronunciation,— 
will tend to unify and simplify the language. The new 
National Phonetic Dictionary is to be the standard which 
determines pronunciations. ‘The Mandarin language, while 
largely used by the educated class, is the one most widely 
understood and hence has been adopted in its new and 
simplified form by the Commission as the national lan- 
guage and a course in Mandarin is compulsory in most 
schools. 

There is no grammatical structure in the Chinese lan- 
guage, the same word being used as noun, verb, adjective 
or adverb. Modes, tenses, persons and numbers, as well 
as declensions, conjugations and auxiliary verbs are all 
lacking. ‘The difficulty of the language lies in the fact that 
so many words with different meanings sound so much alike 
that the foreign ear can scarcely detect the difference and 
the foreign tongue can with difficulty make the distinctions. 
The Chinaman has just as much difficulty with the English 
language. “Pidgin” English is really ‘‘business’ English, 
the word “pidgin” being the nearest approach the China- 
‘man can make to the pronunciation of the word “busi- 
ness.’ 

English is being widely studied, all intelligent Chinese 
being very eager to learn and to display their attainments. 
Letters are still to be found similar to the following: “We 
are much sorrowful to announcement you the butter you 
have order have expiered and the Cheese more three days 
gone before is finished.” A tailor’s sign in Peking reads, 
“Sing Zung Kee—Ladies and Gentle-Men’s Tailor—Ladies 
have Fits Upstairs—All Can Do It.” 


EDUCATION 196 


Periodicals. China began to make paper in 75 A.D. 
and had printing with movable type a thousand years before 
the time of Gutenberg. The Peking Gazette, the first 
newspaper in the world, was published in the fourteenth 
century. Now there are over one thousand daily, weekly 
and monthly periodicals published in China. 

The Students’ Movement. On May 4, 19109, the stu- 
dents of thirty-three colleges and schools in Peking num- 
bering 15,000 men, together with some women, made a 
public demonstration against the Shantung decision at the 
Versailles Treaty Conference and against the three ruling 
officials under Japanese influence whom they branded as 
“traitors,” and whom they were soon afterwards instru- 
mental in driving from office. 

A few of these students were arrested, which caused 
30,000 others to come forward and volunteer to become pris- 
oners as a protest. Seeing the trend of things, the Peking 
Government released the students who were under arrest. 
Some of them, however, died of the brutalities inflicted upon 
them at the time of their arrest or during their imprison- 
ment. 

The students’ organisation then appealed to the Chinese 
merchants to establish a boycott against all Japanese goods 
and there was a widespread response. Japan immediately 
lost forty per cent. of her previous trade with China, and 
this proportion still continues, that which remains consisting 
largely of raw materials. 

The next effort on the part of the students was to dis- 
courage Chinese delegates at Paris from signing the Treaty. 
The delegates received over a thousand telegrams from vari- 
ous Chinese organisations in protest against their signing 
the Treaty, which helped them to maintain an absolute 
refusal to accept it. 

The students’ movement also issued nationalistic propa- 
ganda, not only in opposition to Japan, but in order to 
create a new spirit of patriotism and unity in China. 


196 CHINA 


They further inaugurated a system of free schools and in 
Peking alone they enrolled 50,000 children for which they 
themselves raised the funds and organised the teaching force. 
This has done more than any other single influence to en- 
courage the widespread education of Chinese children. 

In Shanghai alone the Students’ union has a membership 
of 15,000 men and 5,000 women, representing eighty-three 
institutions. It has formed the National Students’ Union, 
with over thirty branches in various parts of China. 

‘Their leadership in the strikes and anti-foreign demon- 
strations in 1925 shows, however, that the impetuous 
zeal of young and enthusiastic idealists may become dan- 
gerous. 

The number of other popular organisations has increased 
twenty-fold in the last five or eight years. ‘The “Union of 
All Classes” built up an organisation of over 300,000 mem- 
bers within a single year. 


PRACTICAL HINTS 


Money. While there is a nominal gold standard, whose 
value in theory is unchanged, in actual practice the value of 
the tael and other silver coins varies with the price of silver. 
_ In addition to this it changes greatly according to the various 
provinces. For instance, in the district of Shansi there is 
an actual discount of about sixty per cent. 

The usual basis of money in Northern China is the tael, 
worth about seventy-six cents in Shanghai and seventy-eight 
cents in Peking. Of course, it is constantly fluctuating. In 
Southern China the standard is the Chinese silver dollar, 
worth about fifty-six cents. This dollar is divided into 
cents, which make the Chinese cent worth about half the 
American. Half dollars, quarters, ten cent pieces, etc., are 
in use. English money is also current. American money 
had better be exchanged at a reputable bank as money chang- 
ers and shopkeepers do not give full value. 


SHOPPING 197 


Rikishas cost forty cents an hour, eighty cents for half 
a day, and a dollar and a half for a full day, although when 
the demand is great, higher rates are charged. Carriages 
are one dollar an hour, three dollars for a half day, and 
five dollars for a whole day. Autos cost about eight dollars 
an hour with a reduction for a half day, and five dollars 
for a whole day. ‘The above figures have reference to Chi- 
nese silver dollars. 

Hotels. ‘There are several good hotels in all the prin- 
cipal cities of China, well adapted to the comforts required 
by foreigners, the charge being from ten Chinese dollars a 
day and up,—principally up. 

Guides. Guides charge four or five dollars a day and 
more. Many are simply runners for particular shops to 
which tourists are always brought sooner or later. ‘This 
usually means a small extra percentage added to the charge 
for purchases. 

Calendar. ‘The calendar is now the same as our western 
one. When Dr. Sun Yat-sen took oath as provisional presi- 
dent of the Chinese Republic on January Ist, 1912, it was 
_ officially designated as the “first day of the first year of the 
Chinese Republic.” 

The Laws for Foreigners. Foreigners do not come 
under the provisions of the Chinese law, but are subject only 
to the laws of their own country. Application in any emer- 
gency should always be made by a foreigner to his own 
consul. 


SHOPS AND SHOPPING 


Nearly all articles can be bought in China at a fraction 
of the cost in America, although it must be remembered 
that careful bargaining is necessary. Articles can some- 
times be bought for a third, or even less than a third, of the 
first price asked. American tourists are especially apt to be 
very much overcharged, as prices usually double and treble 
when the American makes his appearance. 


197A CHINA 


Silk Products are the most conspicuous, as about 
$200,000,000 worth of silks are manufactured every year, 
of which one-third is exported. ‘The mulberry tree silk is 
finer than the pongee silk, which is produced by worms that 
are fed on oak leaves. ‘The best silk is probably to be found 
in Shanghai and Peking. 

Jade is the name commonly given to various kinds of 
ornamental stones of compact and tough texture, in colour 
varying from white to very dark green. Greyish, greenish, 
bluish and even yellowish tones occur frequently. A pale 
lavender colour is rare. One variety is so dark a green 
as to be almost black. Emerald green is the most highly 
prized. Chinese merchants for trade purposes classify seven 
kinds of jade, and their value is in a diminishing progres- 
sion. 1. Best quality bright emerald green. 2. Less vivid 
green. 3. Dull clouded green. 4. Dark opaque green. 5. 
Red. 6. Dull white. 7. Vitreous white. “The Chinese 
make a good imitation of jade with soapstone, but this may 
be detected as it slivers when cut. Artificial jade, made 
in Germany, as well as ‘Siberian Chrysoprase” is fre- 
quently sold as jade. ‘The surest test of jade is its great 
tenacity. Its hardness is about the same as that of quartz. 
Prehistoric man used jade for implements and weapons as 
well as for ornaments, amulets, pendants, beads, etc. 

China is pre-eminently the country of jade. ‘The Chinese 
regard it as more precious than gold or silver or jewels. 
Their early classical books make frequent references to it. 
They put pieces of it in the mouths of their dead to insure 
immortality. As far back as we go in the history of China, 
we find it used for religious purposes and for ceremonial 
life 4,000 years before it was known by Englishmen. Em- 
perors stored wine in large jade jars. Modern Chinese 
hold a piece of it in the hand when discussing important 
matters and wear charms of jade to protect them from evil 
and misfortune. 

The alert shopper can find snuff bottles, girdle clasps, 


SHOPPING 197B 


rings, vases, boxes, dagger handles, bottles, bowls, mirror 
frames, wine cups, armlets, pipe mouthpieces, beads, trays, 
screens, brush holders, incense burners, paperweights and 
pendants,—all in jade. 

A creation in jade peculiar to China represents flowers 
and fruit modelled in other hard stones mingled with jade. 
Small jade trees in cloisonné jars with fruit or blossoms in 
coloured stones may be purchased from twenty-five or thirty 
dollars up into the hundreds. The leaves and flowers are 
of jade, coral, quartz, amber, ivory, lapis lazuli, turquoise, 
malachite, etc. 

Amulets are very popular. Jade carved in the form of 
a phoenix is given to girls when they come of age. A but- 
terfly is a symbol of requited love and is given by a bride- 
groom to his fiancée. Hard working women invest their 
savings in jade which they wear on all occasions. Even 
women with no home but a sampan on the river wear jade 
braclets and other ornaments while at their most menial 
tasks. 

_ Amber is a fossil resin derived from extinct varieties of 

pine. Similar resins frequently substituted for it are quickly 
affected by alcohol but true amber is not except after long 
immersion. When rubbed on cloth amber will attract bits 
of thin paper, although resin imitations do the same. When 
rubbed very vigorously, it will give a very delicate aro- 
matic odour; when cut with a knife, it powders and does 
not give parings. When a flame is applied, it burns 
slowly. 

Clear amber is more valuable than cloudy. Amber dark- 
ens with age, especially when worn next to the skin, and 
often takes on a red colour tone. It has a peculiar velvety 
feeling, is very light and contains small air bubbles and 
occasionally a waste particle of animal life or twig caught 
in the resin as it exudes. 

The poorest imitation is yellow glass, harder, heavier 
than the real, and cold to the touch, sometimes even show-_ 


197C CHINA 


ing splinters at the edges. A better imitation is of celluloid 
which develops very little electricity when rubbed and gives 
off a smell of camphor, and, of course, explodes when 
touched by a flame. A common imitation is pressed amber 
or ambroid. ‘This is made of small bits of waste amber 
that are softened by heat and subjected to high pressure. 
‘This product has many characteristics of real amber but 
shows differences under the microscope. Even in clear por- 
tions it shows small brownish veins and is never glassy 
clear. Many of the cheaper beads are made from this 
pressed amber which can be shaped in the same way as the 
natural amber. 

So great has been the demand for good old amber that 
the price has doubled within the last few years, and even a 
short string of real amber beads can hardly be purchased 
for less than twenty-five dollars and anything sold for less 
than this amount is almost sure to be imitation. 

Ivory. Much cheap carving that is sold for ivory is 
only bone soaked in tea to give it the color of old ivory. 
Real ivory has a full close grain with concentric lines like 
the lines in wood known as growth lines. It requires sea- 
soning just as wood does. In a dry climate it will crack, 
especially with sudden changes of temperature. Beware of 
a cheap product that is made from ivory dust made into a 
jelly, hardened and used commercially as though it were 
real ivory. ‘This lacks the growth lines. 

Ivory is employed for many useful and ornamental arti- 
cles in common usage, such as napkin rings, cigarette cases, 
boxes, cigar holders, pipes, umbrella and cane handles, brace- 
lets, ornamental combs both plain and carved, toilet sets, 
paper cutters and innumerable ornamental figures of idols, 
grotesque forms of animals, elaborately carved chessmen 
and mah jong sets. The last named can be bought very 
cheaply at Canton. 

Jewellery. Many forms of hand-made jewellery con- 
taining jade, amber and semi-precious stones can be had at 


SHOPPING 197D 


very low prices, but care must be taken to avoid fraud. In 
reputable stores a jeweller will stamp his name on any 
article of gold, and this binds him, if the purchaser so de- 
sires, to repurchase the article at any time by weight. Such 
stores also give written guaranties, which furnish some as- 
surance that the articles are genuine. 

Cloisonné can be had to best advantage in Peking, 
although the Shanghai shops are quite satisfactory. Some- 
times the wires framing the designs are only gilded, and as 
the gilt wears off, the article becomes duller. 

Lace can be purchased to special advantage in China, 
although sometimes the material of even fine work is very 
cheap, especially where cotton is used instead of linen. 

Embroidery is China’s strongest point, both in work- 
manship and design, although sometimes it is over-coloured, 
the Chinese not having as good an eye for delicate colour- 
blending as have the Japanese, but their work is finer and 
better than that of any other country. They use pure 
colour rather than pastel shades. Sometimes actual figures 
of trees, houses and people are embroidered within a square 
- of a quarter of an inch with marvellous fineness and pre- 
cision. Old Mandarin skirts beautifully embroidered in 
panels can be bought for a low price and will furnish ma- 
terial for lamp shades, hat bands, trimming for gowns, 
purses, bags, table runners, cushions and various other 
forms of decoration, even though much worn. 

Pottery is of exceptionally high quality in China, partly 
because of the skillful workmanship and partly because of 
the higher temperature at which the pottery is fired. 

There is much enamelling done on fine quality of silver. 

The Chinese are experts in glass blowing, and in the 
making of fancy bottles, vases, anklets, bracelets, rings and 
even tiny hair ornaments. 

It takes six months to make a fine piece of lacquer work 
on account of the need of thorough drying between the many 
coats applied. The Chinese lacquer work is finer than even 


198 CMi Na 


that of Japan. It can be bought in Canton to the best ad- 
vantage. 

Mandarin Coats have been worn very little since the 
advent of the Republic, and consequently old garments are 
sold at low figures. 

The Chinese are natural artisans and the nation has a 
great future in all textile work. ‘There are at present 2,000 
students in France studying the textile arts. 

A Chinese Dinner. An elaborate dinner in China has 
a menu somewhat similar to the following and somewhat 
in the order here suggested: hors d’ceuvre, fruit. duck eggs, 
chicken with cucumber salad, birds’ nest soup, shark’s fins, 
roast duck, soup of sugared lotus seed, toast with bamboo 
sprouts and chicken, soup of lobster, asparagus and milk, 
and cake. ‘Chop Suey,” with which we are familiar in 
Chinese restaurants in our country, is unknown in China. 


CHINESE RELIGIONS 


The Chinese religion has as its basis a belief in Animism, 
or the religion of Nature, in which good and evil spirits 
contend for the mastery. This leads to the endeavour on. 
the part of the Chinese people to engage in acts of pro- 
pitiation to the good spirits and the exorcism of evil ones. 

The main developments of religion are as follows: 

I, Confucianism. ‘This is, strictly speaking, a moral and 
political code rather than a religion, as it has no creed or 
religious tenets. It was put into systematic form by the 
philosopher Confucius (born 551 B.c.), and gradually he 
has become to the Chinese people the centre of light, the 
model of upright living and the supreme teacher of truth. 
While claiming no divine prerogatives he is worshipped at 
special temples built in every part of China. “These tem- 
ples have a plain exterior and contain only the Confucian 
ancestral tablets, and sometimes statues of Confucius and 
his disciples. 

Confucianism is based on the five relations of man as 


CONFUCIANISM 199 


ruler and ruled, husband and wife, father and son, elder and 
younger brother, as well as friend and friend. Filial loyalty 
and reverence for age are especially stressed. Confucius had 
no message concerning God or the future state. It was not 
until 500 years after his death that he was recognised as 
the great teacher of China, and the first temple to his mem- 
ory was built by Imperial command. While Confucianism is 
on the wane, the temple observances being confined to the 
official and educated classes, the Confucian ethics and ideals 
permeate the whole nation. 

II. Ancestral Worship. ‘This is a sort of “home” re- 
ligion, since many homes have a shrine with several ancestral 
names written on a paper or carved on wood tablets. ‘These 
ancestral tablets are usually one foot high and three inches 
wide, placed upright on a pedestal on which the name, rank, 
age and dates of birth and death are inscribed. It is some- 
what like having the family tombstones in miniature in 
one’s home. ‘This tablet is consecrated with great religious 
ceremony when it is installed and afterwards incense is 
burned and offerings are made night and morning by the 
eldest son of the family. In April a special family festival 
- is held with some features suggestive of our Christmas. 
Announcements are formally made to the tablet of births 
and betrothals, and when the bride first comes into the house 
she is formally presented to this tablet, thus invoking the 
paternal blessing of the departed. 

All this tends to establish family ties, and to teach filial 
obedience and reverence. ‘This worship is based on the 
assumption that ancestors, if properly approached, can help 
the surviving members of the household to secure success 
in worldly undertakings. A religious Chinaman of the 
lower order never goes to sleep without burning a stick of 
incense to his dead father and making offerings of mock 
money. So deeply is this fundamental conception inbred 
in the religious life of the people that many missionaries 
feel that it is necessary to try to Christianise it. Ancestor 
worship is really the very heart of the religious and social 


200 CHINA 


life of the people, and so far as this is identified with Con- 
fucianism in the minds of the people, it helps to establish 
their loyalty to it. 

III. Taoism, founded by Laotze (born 604 B.c.), an 
immediate predecessor of Confucius, is the doctrine of the 
“right way, ’—the “return” to that which brings true hap- 
piness. Its basis is a profoundly discerning book called Tao 
Teh King. It preaches stoicism, democracy, simplicity, 
patience, humility and self-control, and is allied to Con- 
fucianism. 

It was taken over by geomancers who pretended to make 
an elixir of life from an herb growing in the “Fairy Islands” 
of the Far Eastern Sea, and an emperor in the third century 
B.c. actually sent an expedition to find these imaginary 
Islands and the immortal herb. ‘They taught that any one 
becoming perfected in this system might rise into heaven on 
the wings of a stork. 

‘Taoism became increasingly corrupt and debased until it 
is now a polytheistic mixture of witchcraft and demonology. 
Laotze himself did not teach these things, these later super- 
stitions being foisted upon his teaching to get the benefit of 
his distinguished name. 

The Taoistic temples are dirty and malodorous and their 
images are of tawdry manufacture. ‘The priests are more 
sextons and caretakers than religious leaders, merely going 
through the form of calling the attention of the deities to 
the suppliants. “They use weird incantations and magical 
charms. ‘The worshippers knock their heads on the ground 
as a token of humility,—the priests in their slate-coloured 
robes meanwhile striking a huge bronze bowl to awaken the 
god from his slumber. ‘The temple courts resound with 
deafening noises of bombs and firecrackers to frighten away 
the evil spirits. They have devils and deities for every phase 
in nature from a shooting star to an earthquake, and for 
every human experience from toothache to “devil possession.” 
The Temples are usually neglected save on some local 
festival. 


Pero] SM 201 


While Taoism has been gradually merged into Buddhism 
and has borrowed the Buddhist liturgy and temple para- 
phernalia, including sacrificial vases, candlesticks and incense 
burners, it has been a large and, on the whole, a debasing 
factor in the religious life of China. It formerly had many 
monasteries, one of them accommodating 20,000 ‘Taoist 
priests. The chief ecclesiastic is a “Pope,” living in the 
Kiangsi Province, where he keeps a collection of evil spirits, 
which he has captured, in glass jars. While Taoism has 
ceased to attract a large following, Taoist priests have a 
certain influence because of their supposed power in exor- 
cising evil spirits. 

IV. Buddhism was introduced into China in 67 a.p. 
by two Indian priests, who brought some holy writings 
and established the teaching of Buddha (or Shakyamuni, as 
he is known in China), in Honan City. The horse that 
carried the sacred. parchments was supposed to be buried 
on the spot in Honan, where the White Horse Temple now 
stands. “These books were translated into Chinese and the 
new religion made rapid progress. Buddhism had a strong 
appeal because it has a message regarding the future life, 
‘being unlike the purely ethical teachings of Confucius. 

The priests use the ancient Sanscrit words in their litur- 
gies, without they themselves or their audiences compre- 
hending a single word. ‘These priests take a vow of celibacy 
and abstain from wine and meat. Buddhism has little re- 
semblance to its early pure form and is only related in name 
to the more vital Buddhism of Japan and Burma. It has 
little hold upon the populace, except in connection with the 
ritual of deaths and burials. It is difficult to make an esti- 
mate of the number of Buddhists in China, as most Chinese 
Buddhists are also Confucianists and Taoists. 

There are some evident traces of Christianity in Buddhist 
religions. In Peking there is an image of Kwannin (much 
the same as the Kwannon in Japan), who is the Goddess 
of Mercy interceding for mankind, which might easily be 
mistaken for a Madonna. ‘There are Buddhist monks and 


202 CHINA 


nuns, rosaries, hours of chanting and service, pictures of 
Buddha with halos not unlike early pictures of Christ, lurid 
representations of hell similar to those to be seen, for in- 
stance, in Pisa, and prayers to the genii not unlike the Cath- 
olic doctrine of saints. Roman Catholic writers, in some 
instances, have claimed that these suggest contact with early 
or medieval Christianity. Unfortunately, however, Bud- 
dhism has kept only the husks and almost nothing of the 
kernel. 

V. Lamaism, which came from Tibet, is a degenerate 
form of Buddhism. It exercised an evil influence wher- 
ever it has gone. Some of the priests wear red robes, and 
hence Lamaism is often spoken of as the “Red Religion.” 
Later, under the influence of Indian priests, who wore 
yellow robes, it became known as the “Yellow Religion,” 
and this is the most powerful sect. “The word Lama means 
“a superior one” and is applied to all priests. 

Immense monasteries have as many as 10,000 Lamas, who 
are given over to sloth and degeneracy. “The Dalai Lama 
is the chief pontiff of Tibet and sways political, as well 
as religious, power. 

VI. Mohammedanism. The Mohammedans came as 
early as 755 A.D., the Chinese emperor at that time having 
invited the Arabs to help him put down a rebellion. After 
this was subdued, they remained and married Chinese wives 
and their descendants have kept up their Mohammedan 
allegiance. ‘The Koran has never been translated into the 
Chinese language, as the book is deemed too sacred. “They 
have, however, Mohammedan preachers, who expound the 
teaching of the Koran in their mosques every Friday. ‘There 
is no call to prayer from a minaret, the priest instead calling 
from the door of the Mosque. He wears special robes only 
during the religious service. “The Chinese Mohammedans 
are strict in their abstinence from pork, but do not pray 
toward Mecca and rarely make pilgrimages to it. 

Mohammedanism has perhaps fifteen million adherents, 
and these are set apart as almost of a distinct nationality, 


GEOMANCY 203 


as they do not intermarry with other people. They have 
been involved in several widespread rebellions, one as late 
as 1905, which have collapsed, and great multitudes were 
massacred. 

VII. Geomancy. This plays a large part in Chinese 
superstitions, and is based on a belief in supposed evil spirits 
that abound in the natural world. ‘These spirits are believed 
to move only in a straight line, being unable to turn a 
corner or make a deflection. The building of high walls 
and the using of charms, sold by priests and charlatans, are 
supposed to check these evil spirits of nature in their malevo- 
lent purposes. “To hinder the entrance into houses and 
temples, outside screens are made wider than the door. ‘The 
roofs of houses are often ornamented with sharp points to 
impale any evil spirits. Lest the spirits of the dead should 
be dissatisfied with the site and surroundings of their tomb, 
and join in casting a malign influence, special care is exer- 
cised to place graves in the best possible surroundings. ‘This 
is a great hindrance to agriculture and makes it difficult to 
build railroads and highways, as the people resent having 
any graves disturbed. 

Pagodas are said to have been introduced into China 
about 300 A. D., and several thousand pagodas have since been 
built, usually on hill-tops. They were erected by a com- 
munity to attract prosperity, to ward off destruction by 
wind and flood and to propitiate evil spirits.. These are 
always five, seven, nine or thirteen stories, as the Chinese 
consider that odd numbers are lucky. 

VIII. Christianity was introduced as early as 500 A.D. 
by a Nestorian priest named Alopan, as is indicated on the 
so-called “Nestorian Monument” dating back to 635, which 
may be seen in the Peilin collection in Peking. Later all 
trace of the movement was lost. Franciscan Roman Cath- 
olic missionaries came as early as 1307, when John of Monte 
Corvino, a disciple of St. Francis of Assisi, undertook active 
work. Matteo Ricci, an Italian Jesuit, came to Peking and 
his skill with his astronomical instruments caused the Em- 


204 GH TN 


peror to give him the site for a Church on which the ‘South 
Cathedral” now stands. 

St. Francis Xavier attempted to reach China, but died in 
1552 on an island near the China coast. An unwise Philippic 
against ancestor worship as being idolatrous caused the ex- 
pulsion of all Roman Catholic missionaries about 1735. 
The Roman Catholics today have their Churches in all im- 
portant cities, and carry on many lines of work and have 
about two million native members. 

An Englishman, the Rev. Robert Morrison, the first Prot- 
estant missionary, landed at Canton, September 7, 1807, and 
although progress at first was slow, as eight years passed 
before he made a single convert, there has been great advance 
in recent years, especially since the Boxer Rebellion. With 
the assistance of Milne, he translated the Bible into Chinese. 
He soon followed this with a Chinese-English dictionary in 
six volumes. 

In 1830, two American missionaries, Bridgman and 
Adeel, entered the field, followed by many others, and there 
has been a large development of Protestant missionary work 
in the last century. Protestantism now has enrolled nearly 
650,000 Church members, with a family constituency of 
3,000,000. It has 27 colleges, 256 preparatory schools, 581 
high schools, besides elementary schools with over 200,000 
pupils. It also carries on 333 hospitals and 241 dispensaries. 

The charge that these converts are largely “rice” or 
pauper Christians was disproved in the Boxer Rebellion, 
when thousands were martyred because they would not re- 
nounce the foreign religion. In recent years some of the 
most prominent Chinese in the country have become Chris- 
tians. A Chinese newspaper had a voting contest as to who 
were the twelve most conspicuous Chinese in the land. Of 
the twelve receiving the highest number of votes, seven were 
Christians. 

The Y. M. C. A. has thirty associations in various cities 
with 41,700 members, and 174 school associations with 
30,000 members. In this service there are 81 foreign and 


Sorts LIAN IT Y 205 


320 Chinese secretaries. ‘The Y. W. C. A. also has branches 
in all the principal cities, with a Chinese graduate of Wel- 
lesley as its national head. ‘They have seven city associations 
and seventy-one student associations conducted by sixty-eight 
foreign and twenty-one Chinese secretaries. 

There are nearly 6,000 Protestant missionaries, mostly 
American, in 1,000 mission stations in China. ‘The Chinese 
Consul General in New York City said in 1921, “The Amer- 
ican people should maintain the good will of the Chinese 
by sending more Christian educational, medical and com- 
mercial missionaries to China.” 

‘There should be no conflict between Christianity and Con- 
fucianism, as their moral standards are of the same general 
character, although the standards of Christianity are higher 
and have a broader content. Missionaries are also learning 
to recognise the fact that Ancestor Worship and the Roman 
Catholic prayers to the saints are on much the same basis 
and hence Ancestor Worship should not be antagonised. 

It is especially important that Christianity be rapidly pro- 
moted, as China has almost ceased to be religious. Con- 
fucianism has had a great moral influence and Buddhism is 
responsible for Chinese art and learning, but both seem to 
be losing their hold upon the people. 

“The weakness of China is in her religions, or rather the 
lack of a real religion. ‘The temples are deserted. Appar- 
ently the Chinese were quite willing to let the impressive 
worship at the Altar of Heaven lapse without a protest 
after the Emperor was deposed. Ancestor worship, how- 
ever, clearly indicates their acceptance of immortality. 

At the same time the people have kept their superstitions, 
insisting, for instance, on using primitive ploughs because 
priests say that there are devils in modern farm implements ; 
also that the opening of mines by foreigners will make the 
spirits of their ancestors angry. 

The greatest need of all is to develop the people along 
religious and moral ideals by merging the best in their own 
religions with a broad and comprehensive Christianity, free 


206 CHINA 


from the dogmas and creeds of Occidental denomina- 
tionalism. 


THE’ OP TUM) Oi 


Opium was introduced into China in the thirteenth cen- 
tury by the Arabs. It has cursed China ever since and in 
recent years has kept the mighty giant asleep and bound by 
the chains of his exploiters. .A Chinese emperor in the 
eighteenth century made opium smokers subject to the death 
penalty, but the Portuguese continued the evil in a measure 
by smuggling in two hundred chests of opium. The British 
East India Company took up the trade and the number of 
chests in 1820 grew to 16,000. As opium was one of the 
chief exports of India, England insisted on forcing the 
trafic upon China. The Chinese resisted at various times 
and places, one commissioner having confiscated and de- 
stroyed $10,000,000 worth at one time. ‘These events led 
to the disgraceful Opium War ending with the Treaty of 
Nanking, by the terms of which China was compelled to 
admit opium imports, to pay England an indemnity of 
$21,000,000, and to cede the port of Hong-Kong. 

The opium trafic was further legalised by the Anglo- 
Chinese Treaty of 1858, which was foisted upon the Chinese 
by Great Britain. It is estimated that by the year 1900, 
25,000,000 men and women in China were opium habitués. 

The edicts forbidding the use of opium and the raising 
of the poppy plant, made by the Queen Dowager about 
1907 and later by the leaders of the Republic of China, 
which seemed so promising a decade or more ago, have come 
to be largely disregarded. ‘This has resulted partly because 
of the chaotic condition of the Government and partly be- 
cause Christian nations, especially England, continue to 
make the prohibition impossible. 

Great Britain agreed in December, 1907, that Indian 
opium should be withdrawn in ten years and by April, 1913, 
she stopped the shipping of opium from India into China 


EVILS OF OPIUM 207 


altogether. “This, however, did not change the fact that she 
continued the government monopoly of making opium in 
India, thus making it possible for individuals to purchase 
it and smuggle it into China. ‘There were also tons of 
morphine made in the United States and Great Britain by 
independent manufacturers and smuggled into China, the 
Japanese acting as middlemen, but the United States has 
recently passed legislation bringing to an end, as far as pos- 
sible, her share of this disgraceful business. 

While Japan largely acts as go-between in the opium 
trafic in China, she will not allow the 15,000 Chinese in 
her own country to have access to it lest the Japanese people 
themselves be injured by it. She has also practically ended 
opium smoking in Formosa. In 1923, however, immense 
quantities of falsely labelled narcotics were seized on Japa- 
nese ships, while none were found in British and American. 

The thousand tons of opium produced annually in India 
is a monopoly by the British Government. ‘To stimulate 
its production, the Government advances money free of in- 
terest to those who wish to undertake the growing of poppy. 
She has increased the amount of opium manufactured in 
India by forty-seven per cent. in ten years. Part of the 
opium produced is kept in India as a “valuable household 
remedy” and the rest is exported to Oriental countries. 

This trade is carried on in the East on so colossal a scale 
that the Malay States use 1,779 grains of opium annually 
per Chinaman (the use being almost wholly by Chinese) 
within her borders; Dutch East Indies, 1,714 grains; Indo- 
China, 2,007 grains; Macao, 2,152 grains; Straits Settle- 
ment (British territory), 2,385 grains; and North Borneo, 
3,360 grains, while in America the per capita consumption 
is thirty-six; in India, twenty-six; in England, three; in 
France, four; in Sweden, seven, and in Germany, two. The 
Philippine Government cannot protect itself from opium 
smuggling, although a law prohibiting it was passed seven- 
teen years ago. 

The World Opium Conferences held in Geneva in 1924 


208 CHINA 


and 1925 were apparently rutile because Great Britain, 
France, Holland and Portugal derive important revenues 
from the trade, and this seems to weigh more than the wel- 
fare of humanity. One-ninth of the revenues of India, di- 
rectly or indirectly amounting to $22,000,000, one-third 
of Hong Kong and one-half of the Straits Settlements are 
thus derived. The Sultan of Johore gets sixty-five per cent. 
of his revenue from this source and some of the Tuchuns of 
China also derive large profits. 

It should also be added that the use of opium tends to re- 
duce commerce, so that the loss of trade is vastly greater 
than the immediate revenue received. 


PEKING 


Peking formerly was believed to be the largest city in 
China, with several million people. Its real population, 
however, is only 1,181,400 (1922), being smaller than 
Canton and Shanghai, although the large space used by the 
Imperial City palaces and the enormous courtyards and 
pretentious homes, give the impression of greater size. Its 
history is recorded from at least 1200 B.c. and it has been 
the national Capital for seven hundred years. ‘The Tartar 
rulers of China built many beautiful palaces and temples 
which still remain and are among the sights of greatest 
interest. Most of the buildings have only two stories and 
are not as high as the imposing walls of the city. 

The Tartar City has six main thoroughfares, three going 
north and south and three east and west. ‘The streets on 
the whole are wider than those of most Chinese cities, and 
there is more traffic, including that of camels and carts, than 
elsewhere. “The side streets, however, are rather narrow 
and crooked. 

“Imperial Purple Peking” is a unique city, but no longer 
does it enclose a Forbidden City. It is made up of a series 
of three cities, each surrounded by its own wall. ‘The first 
is the Outer or Chinese City, now the business quarter, 


PEKING 209 


whose walls, twenty-one feet high, form a square seven miles 
long on each side. The second is the Tartar or Inner City, 
whose walls, thirty-seven feet high and fifty-two feet wide 
at the top, form a rectangle of four by three miles, or a 
total of twelve miles, the sides facing the cardinal points of 
the compass. The third is the innermost or Imperial City, 
formerly known as the Forbidden City. ‘There are square 
towers and guard houses built at intervals of sixty feet 
along some of these walls. 

The city has enjoyed many advantages in recent years; 
a street car system has been built; a new water supply has 
been installed; streets are paved; automobiles are racing on 
the highways; aéroplanes fly between the Great Wall and 
the Ming tombs; modern business structures have been built 
and wireless Marconi masts, rising from the Japanese lega- 
tion, make a conspicuous landmark. 

Peking is the most brilliant jewel of the diadem of China 
and the home of its statesmen, scholars and financiers. It 
was the scene of the utmost regal splendour during the 
Monarchy. Here as late as 1908 reigned Kuang-hsii, the 
occupant of the most ancient of earthly thrones. It has 
been the capital of China since the thirteenth century. 

Railways do not enter the city, as that would have been 
profanation, but the station is close to the Cheng-yang-men 
Gate, through which one enters immediately into the well- 
shaded and well-paved streets of the Foreign Concession, 
where the flags of all nations are waving. 

A fine view of the city can be had from the Chien Mem 
Tower on the south Wall of the Tartar City. Here 
glimpses can be seen of the palaces of the Innermost City 
and even of the tiled roof of the Temple of Heaven. On 
this part of the wall foreigners only are allowed. In view 
of the fact that from this point of vantage the foreign troops, 
during the Boxer Rebellion, shelled the city, it has been con- 
ceded to the Powers as assuring protection to the Foreign 
Legations. 

The Legation Quarter adjoins the southern wall of the 


210 CHINA 


Tartar City, and has its own walls, protected by soldiers 
on all sides, separating the legations from the rest of the 
city. Besieged by the Boxers in 1900, the entire foreign 
population would have been exterminated except for the 
rescuing troops. Each gate is now guarded with as much 
solicitude as though it gave entrance to a royal palace. ‘The 
street to the legation is walled and curved so that shots 
from without cannot take effect. No Chinese are allowed 
to live here, but all foreigners, with the exception of mis- 
sionaries, are expected to make this their residence. In 
reality, however, many foreign business men reside outside 
in the new residential quarters. ‘The American legation 
quarters are, as usual, very unpretentious, 


THE FORBIDDEN Ca 


The Imperial or Forbidden City, with the “Purple For- 
bidden Palace’ at its very heart, is at the centre of the Inner 
or Tartar City and is enclosed by huge brick walls, with 
four entrances, each with triple gates, the middle gate in 
former days being reserved for the Emperor. ‘This is not 
merely a palace but a city and there are no means of getting 
about except by walking. ‘The entire Imperial City en- 
closes two square miles, or one-sixth of the entire area of 
the Tartar City. The famous Dragon Screen is in the 
Tartar City, just outside the walls of the Forbidden City, 
requiring quite a long walk to reach it. 

Here are a series of canals, a large lake, scores of build- 
ings of barbaric splendour crowded together, halls of im- 
mense proportions, several palaces for the favourite wives of 
former Emperors, together with residences of court officials. 
In the western part of the Imperial City is a lake, with an 
island connected by a marble bridge, where Yuan Shih-kai 
and his family formerly occupied a spacious villa. 

No foreigners except diplomats on New Year’s Day had 
entered the Imperial City until after the Boxer Rebellion, 
at which time the Foreign Legations, including ladies, were 


Pore roo EN CITY 211 


here entertained. ‘Tourists through their respective Lega- 
tions are now admitted to all parts of the Imperial City. 

Yet the Tartar City and its enclosed Forbidden City are 
much as they were a decade or even a century ago. Even 
though the Dragon Throne has disappeared and there are 
new slogans and shibboleths and a brisk air of modern pros- 
perity, the real heart of Peking has changed but little. 

It is believed by many that the Dragon Throne will come 
back, and that the former Emperor, Hsiian Tung, who was 
only a boy of six when the Republic was declared, but now 
a young man, will again occupy the Emperor’s throne. He 
was married December, 1922, at seventeen years of age with 
all the ancient ceremonial ritual, suitable to the marriage 
of the “Son of Heaven.” He is said to have unusual abilities, 
and has been well educated by tutors. When General Feng 
captured Peking he “dispossessed” him and he took refuge 
in the Foreign Legation in Tientsin. It is reported that 
he desires to take a university course in this country and 
that our government authorities have encouraged him to 
do so, 


fore tev PLE AND ALTAR 
Oboe Eb AV EN 


These two structures are in the extreme southern end of 
the Chinese City and are surrounded by a special wall three 
and a half miles in circumference, enclosing a Park, dotted 
with old stunted pine and cypress trees, where the black 
“Angus” cattle used for sacrifice were wont to graze. 
Within this enclosure are a second and a third wall, each 
having park spaces and gates. In the enclosure of the inner 
wall may be seen a series of temples and structures of second- 
ary importance, the last being the Emperor’s former robing 
Temple. ‘The commanding feature overshadowing all others 
is the Temple of Heaven, where the Emperor went alone 
on New Year’s Day to pray before going to the Altar of 
Heaven, both being in the same enclosure. 


212 CHINA 


When General Grant visited Peking in 1879 these temple 
grounds were officially thrown open for the first time to any 
foreigner. “The Chinese regarded this as the greatest honour 
that could be shown. 

These were the most elaborate of all religious structures 
in China, but they are now in a most neglected condition, 
and weeds and grass are growing in the cracks of the marble 
pavement and carved balustrades. Probably this temple area 
has had its last ceremonial. No bullocks now are sacrificed, 
no silk and rice wine are offered, no fire kindled in the green 
porcelain furnace. ‘The monster iron braziers, where for- 
merly prayers were burned, have no ashes, and neglect and 
desolation are apparent. ‘The general religious indifference 
of the Chinese is here plainly indicated. 

At the end of the paved avenue leading through a park- 
like grove rises the Altar of Heaven on a “triple circular 
marble terrace’ which is 210 feet wide at the bottom, 150 
feet in the middle and 90 feet at the top. “The ascent is by 
four circular stairs at the four cardinal points. Each ter- 
race has beautifully carved posts and balconies, the surfaces 
of the marble blocks at the top terrace being in nine centric 
circles, the innermost nine blocks and the outermost eighty- 
one blocks. “The middle stone is a perfect circle and any- 
one striking it with a cane hears a hollow sound which, he 
is assured, proves that the cavity below reaches to the centre 
of the earth. On this stone the Emperor knelt in the most 
gorgeous and impressive service in the Empire. The Altar 
was believed to be the seat which Shang-ti, the ruler of 
Heaven, occupied during the ceremony. 

The idea of the Emperor performing the solitary act of 
worship is not unlike the old Hebrew High Priest entering 
the Holy of Holies to atone for the sins of the people. The 
Chinese were wont to say “the God of Heaven is too great 
for us to worship. None but the ‘Son of Heaven’ is worthy 
to lay an offering on the Altar of Heaven.” 

The Imperial Worship took place during many centuries” 
on December 22nd, annually. ‘The Emperor left his Palace 


fork OFT EAV EN 213 


at sunset, and spent the whole night in prayer in the Temple 
of Abstinence near the main entrance, previous to the cere- 
mony itself. At dawn the next morning he donned the 
garments of the High Priest and ascended the marble stairs, 
standing on the circular stone in the centre before the Altar 
itself. Here some silk was brought to the worshipping Em- 
peror which was burned, and rice wine which he drank, 
while the musicians played solemn music and the dancers 
swayed in rhythmic motion. ‘The sacrifice of a bullock and 
the burning of incense accompanied the impressive ceremony. 
The elaborate ritual required months of training by all those 
who participated. Women were not allowed to take part 
in any feature of the solemn ceremonial at this Imperial 
temple, and their presence at any time on any part of the 
grounds was considered a pollution of the sanctuary. 

This worship of Heaven by the “Son of Heaven” was a 
form of Nature worship which ante-dated Confucianism and 
Taoism, and included not only Shang-ti, the supreme god, 
but also the gods of earth, wind, rain and lightning. 

‘The sense of reverence and respect had so little place 
among the Allies during the Boxer Rebellion, that the Altar 
of Heaven grounds were used as barracks for British troops. 

Yuan-Shih-kai undertook, when President, to arrogate this 
privilege of conducting the worship at the Altar of Heaven 
to himself when he planned to assume the throne. The 
popular feeling was so hostile as to discourage his effort. 

A furnace of green tiles, with eight braziers in front of 
the altar, is in one corner of the enclosure. ‘There is a 
smaller altar north of the Altar of Heaven used especially 
for prayers for abundant harvests, and nearby is the Temple 
of the Happy Year, ninety-nine feet high, being the loftiest 
structure in the Temple of Heaven area. ‘This building 
was erected in 1889, the older structure having been struck 
by lightning caused, according to popular belief, by an im- 
pious centipede perching high on the golden ball above. 

A short rikisha ride takes one to the Temple of Agri- 
culture in a large park of 300 acres. It is used by natives 


214 CHINA 


as a recreation ground, and for tea drinking. ‘The worship 
at this Temple was instituted by the Emperor Shun in 
2200 B.C. 

Here the Emperor came at certain times and went through 
elaborate ceremonies, propitiating the gods of the mountains, 
rivers and valleys before starting on a journey, and offering 
prayers for rain as well as of thanksgiving after good har- 
vests. Here he removed his royal garb and put on the yellow 
dress of a peasant, following a royal yellow plough being 
drawn by an ox led by an official, both being draped in 
yellow. He made nine furrows from east to west, the 
princes meanwhile following and scattering seed while royal 
singers sang hymns praising husbandry. ‘This ceremony was 
witnessed by immense holiday crowds. ‘The custom is much 
like that of the Japanese Empress going through the form 
at specific times of feeding silk worms, thus tending to in- 
crease the yield by making it a popular pastime, even for 
the rich ladies of Japan. 


SIGHTSEEING PBA Tie 


The Summer Palace at Nan Shosi-Shan, eleven miles 
northwest of Peking, was constructed in the old Summer 
Palace grounds by the Empress Dowager, Hsi ‘Tai-hou, 
popularly called ‘Old Buddha,” who used the fifty millions 
of dollars which the Government had appropriated for a 
modern navy for this purpose. 

The Empress Dowager was one of the most extraordinary 
women that ever lived. ‘The secret administering of poison, 
or the handing of a silken cord to anyone she disliked (which 
was a tacit command to commit suicide), or perhaps whim- 
sically slapping an official, who crossed her, in the face were 
her usual methods of handling her adversaries. At this 
Summer Palace, which was her favourite residence, she had 
over a thousand eunuchs, one of whom had great influence 
over her. “The number of her other attendants made a 


PEKING SIGHTSEEING 215 


small city. Some of these are now pensioned by the Re- 
public, each receiving $4.00 a month and a bag of rice. 

The Palace grounds enclose a large Lake nearly ten miles 
in circumference (which was once a marsh containing the 
jade fountains), where the Dowager used to sit in state in 
a great two-story imitation marble boat with open pavilions, 
—used only as a landing place. She had a favourite spot 
on a marble platform where she was wont to sit and fish. 

A wonderful white marble bridge of seventeen arches, the 
approach being by a long gallery with 280 pillars, extends 
from the Palace grounds to one of the islands in the lake. 
Elsewhere are other picturesque bridges, including the much- 
admired camel-backed structure of white marble. 

After her son, the young Emperor, died, she put his im- 
mediate successor, Kuang-hsti, on this island, and kept him 
under guard, as she was in no mood to relinquish her author- 
ity. When in 1908 she realised that she was dying she 
gave orders that he be executed, and his death was almost 
coincident with hers. 

The Palace is beautifully set beside the Lake amid bridges 
and pavilions, and lavishly decorated in colours, paintings 
- and porcelains. Around the Palace are many Halls with 
green and yellow-tiled roofs. The Hall of State is an im- 
posing building with pillars and beams richly carved and 
decorated. 

There is also the older Palace, which has residences for 
officials and quarters for servants. “This was almost de- 
stroyed by the English and French in 1860, when they 
looted the Palace of the best of its art treasures in order to 
make gifts to Queen Victoria and Napoleon III. Some of 
its former charm, however, still remains. 

The Great Temple, built on large and solid foundations 
of masonry and containing the large gilded image, is reached 
by two immense staircases. Higher up is the temple of the 
Myriad Buddha surrounded by various pavilions and me- 
morials. 

The Bronze Pavilion is a marvel of artistic workmanship. 


216 CHINA 


Even the tiles, floor and furniture were of bronze, but much 
of it has been removed by pillage, including the wonderful 
open-work bronze windows. 

On the water’s edge in front of the group of temples is the 
great portal known as the Grand Pailau, its carved dragons 
and rich decorations being surmounted by three projecting 
yellow-tiled roofs. ‘The bronze lions just adjoining are finer 
than those of the Lama Temple. 

From Prospect Hill, one gets a fine view of the city. 
This Hill is artificial, having been made by piling immense 
quantities of coal for emergency fuel, the whole being now 
covered with soil on which a grove of trees is growing. “The 
Hill, sometimes called Coal Hill, is surrounded by a wall a 
mile in circumference. 

Nearly all of the costly and imposing structures are of 
wood. ‘The absolute neglect of repairs and the absence of 
paint are rapidly reducing them to ruins. 

A Marble Gate, put up by the Chinese Government, 
contains a penitential inscription regarding the murder of 
Baron Kettler, the German Ambassador at the time of the 
Boxer Rebellion, together with an epitaph eulogising his 
virtues. , 

The Lama or Yellow (Yung Ho Kung) Temple is 
near the north wall of the Tartar City, in a Mongol centre 
on Hetamen Street. It consists of two buildings erected 
about three hundred years ago for the entertainment of the 
Dalai Lamas and Mongol princes. Here some hundreds of 
filthy Mongol monks make their habitat, who are adepts at 
playing the role of beggars. “They are persistent in demand- 
ing cumsha (tips), although the admission fee is coupled 
with the notice that no tips should be given. ‘They are, 
however, treated with consideration by the Government, so 
as not to give offence to Mongolia. These buildings are 
filthy and in a state of decay, but there is an abundance of 
rich carvings, decorations and paraphernalia of worship. 

A mammoth image of the Buddhist redeemer Maitreya, 
over seventy feet high, is within the temple area, carved 


HeRING STGHTSEEING 217 


from a single tree and brought from Tibet. A huge prayer 
wheel, nearly as high as the statue, is close by. Here also 
is a golden replica of paradise and statues of two hippo- 
potami who attacked the Emperor Ch’ien Lung unsuccess- 
fully, as well as a room of small groups of Buddhas and 
their women companions used in unspeakably obscene 
Phallic worship. ‘These are shown to men visitors only. 

Early in the morning and late in the afternoon these 
Mongolian priests in yellow and brick-red costumes conduct 
a very strange and spectacular form of worship. ‘The 
famous Lama devil dance is held on the thirtieth day of the 
first Chinese moon, at which time the Lamas in grotesque 
black and white costumes drive away evil spirits by mock 
heroics and incantations, and publicly burn a painted statue 
of a demon at high noon. 

The Temple of Confucius is in the old university 
grounds and has the ancestral tablet of Confucius in an 
alcove shrine, and in the courtyard are shrines of his dis- 
ciples. Some monuments give descriptions of successful 
Manchu wars, and there are ten boulders or ‘“‘drums,” two 
feet high and one foot in diameter, which give the details 
of a hunting expedition by the Emperor Shan in 827 B.c. 

The Hall of Classics is a large square building of Chi- 
nese architecture, adjoining the National University. It 
contains 300 stone steles, carved with the complete text of 
the nine classics. From the top of the Drum Tower here, 
130 feet high, an excellent view of the Tartar City can be 
obtained. 

The Drum Bell stands between the Drum Tower and 
the northern wall. The story goes that after several failures 
in casting the bell, the bellmaker’s daughter, because her 
father’s life would be forfeited in case of another failure, 
was told in a dream that the casting would be a success if 
a human life was sacrificed in the molten metal, whereupon 
she herself became a voluntary victim. ‘The credulous still 
believe that they can hear moans coming from out the bell, 


218 CHINA 


the ringing of which at 8:30 p.m. can be heard all over 
the city. 

‘The same story, however, is sometimes told of the bell at 
the Buddhist Big Bell Temple, two and a half miles west 
of the City. This bell is fourteen feet in height, thirty-six 
feet in circumference and weighs sixty tons, and was cast in 
1408 A.D. 

The Astronomical Observatory is the oldest in exist- 
ence, having been built by Kubla Khan in 1279 a.pD., and is 
equipped with ancient Chinese astronomical instruments. 
The first observatory in Europe was erected in Denmark 
fully three hundred years later. ‘The Germans carried away 
these ancient instruments in 1900, but by the Treaty of 
Versailles were forced to return them,—the only actual 
advantage that China secured in joining the Allies. 

The site of the Old Examination Hall with its thou- 
sands of tiny prison-like stalls can be seen from here. ‘The 
new building to house the Chinese Parliament will probably 
occupy its place. 

The National Art Museum, one of the most unique 
among world museums, is inside the Imperial City, and is 
open to all visitors. It displays the most elaborate and 
remarkable Chinese collection of art objects in existence: 
cloisonné, porcelains, carved ivories and jade, embroideries, 
paintings, images, bronzes, furniture, weapons and every 
conceivable object of age-old China. It represents the life 
and history of China in miniature. ‘The collection is esti- 
mated to be worth over a hundred million dollars. One 
hall is given over to bronzes, mostly dating back 1000 to 
1500 B.c. Such a collection helps to impress the mind with 
the remarkably advanced civilisation which existed in China 
in those remote times. : 

The Botanical and Zodlogical Gardens, a few miles 
west of the city, have a modern setting and have become a 
popular pleasure garden. 

The Wu Ta-szu or Five Towered Temple, donated by 
a rich Hindu, is a very distinctive object, but is in rather a 


Ment NG HINT § 219 


dilapidated condition. It is difficult of access, being reached 
by a walk through the rice-fields. It is in Hindu style of 
architecture, on a square marble terrace, fifty feet high, 
reached by inside stairs, and from this terrace rise the five tow- 
ers of the Temple, all richly carved with Hindu characters. 


Cart RA Le HEN DS 


Hotels. Peking has attractive hotels, namely the Grand 
Hotel de Peking, Hotel des Wagon Lits, Astor Palace, etc. 
The hotels make high charges, but are very comfortable. 

Conveyances. It costs about $5.00 (American) for half 
a day and $10.00 a day for a carriage. Rikishas are thirty 
cents an hour and $2.00 a day. Motors cost $15.00 to 
$20.00 for half a day. All prices, however, everywhere in 
Asia, are apt to go up when American tourists appear. 

Shopping. Peking is the finest shopping centre in China 
for Chinese curios (many of them spurious), porcelains, 
embroideries, rugs, cloisonné, lanterns, silks, brass-ware, 
carved jade and ivories. A general description can be found 
under Practical Hints on page 196, giving a detailed list of 
purchasable articles. As shopping centres, Canton would 
rank second and Shanghai third. 

Churches. Among Protestant Churches, the Methodist 
is inside the Chungwenmen gate; the A. B. C. F. M. (Con- 
gregational) is at the northeast of —Tung-Tan-pai-loa, and 
the London Missionary Society and the Presbyterian Church 
have mission activities at Chungwenmen. 

The Roman Catholic Church is at Tung-Chiao-min- 
hsiang. “The various American Missions have several col- 
leges and some schools for both sexes. 

Y.M.C. A. In April, 1920, the Y. M. C. A. celebrated 
its twenty-fifth Chinese Anniversary, at which time the 
President of the Republic gave one thousand delegates a 
reception in his own grounds and palace where formerly 
the Chinese Emperors resided, and made them a cordial and 
appreciative address of welcome. ‘There is also a successful 


and well-housed Y. W. C. A. 


220 CHINA 


Peking University is one of the characteristic schools 
of highest college standard, carried on under missionary au- 
spices, in which all Americans should be profoundly inter- 
ested. “This University comprises the union of all the higher 
Christian educational institutions in and near Peking, two 
colleges for men, one college for women and one theological 
school being combined. ‘There is a large student attendance, 
representing almost every province of the vast Republic, 
although hundreds are turned away every year on account 
of inadequate accommodations. ‘The faculty consists of 
forty-one Americans and Europeans, and of thirty Chinese. 
Of 450 alumni, there are 71 ministers, 133 teachers, 37 
doctors, 36 Y. M. C. A. secretaries, and 19 hold govern- 
ment positions. Forty-five former students are continuing 
research and graduate work which will enable them to take 
leadership in the great advance movement of the Chinese 
Republic. The National Imperial University carried on 
by the government has 3,000 students. 

‘The new Student Movement, which is one of the largest 
factors in the hope of China’s regeneration, is intensely 
patriotic and is dominated by a high ideal. At the same 
time, there is danger of its being swayed by contrary forces 
such as Bolshevism, communism and atheism. ‘This was 
evidenced in their leadership of the strikes and anti-foreign 
riots of 1925. The government colleges are quite indiffer- 
ent to all religions and are usually antagonistic to Chris- 
tianity. Hence the Christian people of America should feel 
that the carrying on of such institutions as Peking Univer- 
sity is absolutely imperative, if China is to become imbued 
with the spirit of Christianity. 

The Rockefeller Foundation has just established the 
Union Medical College and Hospital at a cost of five mil- 
lion dollars, which it also supports. It is the most scientific 
institution of its kind in Asia and specialises in experimental 
work and research. 


CHINESE WALL 221 
GREAT WALL OF CHINA 


‘The famous Great Wall can be most easily seen on the 
railroad journey from Mukden to Peking. It is from twenty 
to fifty feet in height and has towers forty feet high at 
intervals of every two hundred yards. It is the only work 
of human hands that an astronomer with a high-powered 
telescope could see from the moon. In it are more materials 
than in all the buildings in Great Britain put together. ‘This 
Wall and the Egyptian Pyramids are the only ones of the 
seven ancient wonders of the world that remain today. It 
was completed after fifteen years of work in 204 B.c., prob- 
ably having employed an average of half a million of men. 
If it were built in the United States it would reach from 
Philadelphia to “Topeka, Kansas. 

It extends seventeen hundred miles (with loops and 
branches representing seventeen hundred additional miles), 
beginning at the sea shore near Tienstin and extending to 
the western border of China’s outer province of Kansu. It 
was built as a defence against the JTartars, and while it 
served to prevent small marauding expeditions, it did not 
hinder the Tartars from finally taking possession of the 
Chinese Capital at Peking. The Wall is still, as a whole, 
in fair condition, although broken and crumbling in some 
parts. 

Shan-hai-kuan, with a population of 30,200, 260 miles 
from Mukden, en route to Peking, is the most advantageous 
place to stop to see the Great Wall. MHere is the famous 
Barrier Gate and Castle at the eastern extremity of the 
Great Wall. It was a strategic position from which to 
repel the attacks of Manchurian and Mongolian invaders. 
The East Gate is thirty feet high, built with two stories, 
the tablet with the inscription ““The First Gate in the 
Realm” being in the upper story. ‘The view from the top 
of the East Gate is magnificent, giving the landscape on 
both sides of the Great Wall, revealing its irregular line 
climbing up and down over the various mountain ridges. 


222 CHINA 


The Great Wall and the Ming Tombs can also be 
reached from Peking by a ride of four hours on the Peking- 
Kalgan railway,—a distance of over one hundred miles, 
with a further ride of some miles by sedan chairs. It is 
hardly feasible, however, for people spending only a couple 
of days in Peking, to make this trip. 


TERE NC Sa 


Tientsin, 2 city of 800,000 people, is eighty-six miles from 
Peking and hence the traveller often uses this port as the 
connecting link. In order to reach Tientsin, the tourist on 
the larger ocean steamers must stop at the Taku anchorage, 
eight miles from Taku, where a transfer is made to steam 
launches of 500 to 800 tons displacement. ‘These enter the 
shallow river at full tide, and in two hours reach Tang-Ku, 
where a railroad trip of 27.2 miles is usually taken to 
‘Tientsin or the journey may be continued thirty-four miles 
by boat. Peking is also reached from Taku. 

At Tientsin there are two railroad stations, the East and 
Central, the former being near the foreigners’ quarters. 
The hotels are the Astor House, which is the best, and the 
Imperial, which is comfortable. 

The Old Wall of former days has been demolished and 
has given place to a wide, modern street with electric cars. 
Each important country has its own Consular Settlement, 
that of the British consisting of 950 acres, the others being 
proportionately large, but the United States has no adequate 
provision for its consul and its citizens. 

Tientsin has little of beauty in its surroundings, being 
situated on a large sandy plain. ‘There is also little of 
tourist interest in the way of distinctive Chinese temples or 
ancient works of art, as the city was small before it became 
a centre of trade and military activity. 

The Li-kung-tzu Temple was built in 1905 and was 
dedicated to Li-Hung-chang. ‘The grounds have an attrac- 
tive lake covered with lotus flowers. 


SHANGHAI 223 


The Industrial Bazaar is situated in a Publi¢ Garden 
and exhibits the various products of the Chihli Province as 
well as those of other parts of China. 

Sun’s Floral Garden, a private garden open to the 
public, is owned by a wealthy Chinaman named Sun. 

The Botanical Garden near the Central Station has 
attractive tea houses and several artificial lakes, making it a 
popular resort, | 


BrtieN Cy bt AN 


Large ocean liners dock at Woosung (the port station 
thirteen miles from Shanghai), at the point where the 
Whangpoo and Yang-tze Rivers meet, sending passengers 
for that city up the river on tenders. On the Whangpoo 
may be seen such a variety of boats as to almost give a 
history of Chinese navigation. On either side of the bow of 
old Chinese craft, the customary eye is painted, presumably 
to enable the boat to see where it is going. Great modern 
passenger steamers; ‘““bumboats’’ rowed by means of the long 
yuloh; large sampans majestically spreading their brown 
sails, in sharp contrast to the smaller ones with their ugly 
huddled squalour; houseboats, gasolene launches and grace- 
ful private yachts; stern-wheel boats operated by “rice- 
power’ with twenty-four coolies on a treadmill; gaily deco- 
rated red flower-boats which one may rent for feasts; primi- 
tive foot-boats with oars operated by the feet; hundreds of 
cargo-boats piled high with everything from bags of sand to 
coffins; high-pooped junks that delight the eye of the artist, 
and Chinese naval cruisers luminous with white paint,— 
these together present a picture with a thousand variations 
that makes a fascinating approach to the City. 

The Yang-tze River takes its rise in the mountains of 
Central ‘Tibet, 3,000 miles away. It drains 600,000 square 
miles and 200,000,000 people live in this fertile territory. 
Sometimes called “the river of fragrant tea fields,” and also 
“child of the sea” in the poetical language of the Chinese, 


224 CHINA 


it is one of the world’s largest rivers, being thirty miles 
wide at Shanghai. ‘Traces of its muddy waters are visible 
for forty miles out in the ocean. “The Yang-tze will be the 
central stage of China’s crisis when it comes. It forms a 
natural dividing line between North and South China, rais- 
ing the question whether, in view of the different languages 
and types of people, two Chinas would not be better than one. 

Shanghai, next to Hong-Kong, is the most important com- 
mercial port in China. The imports and exports each total 
more than $320,000,000, the principal imports being cotton 
cloth, steel and kerosene, and the exports being silk, skins, 
tea, wood, oil, etc. ‘The trade territory of Shanghai em- 
braces the whole northern part of China. 

Shanghai is the Paris of the Far East, and has 1,538,500 
inhabitants (1922). It does not furnish any distinctive 
Chinese sights, except the usual bewildering glimpses of 
the characteristic Chinese streets, shops and homes. It has 
20,000 foreigners, of whom 1,500 are Americans. 

Shanghai has had a wide reputation for festive wicked- 
ness regarding which the foreign residents have been some- 
what sensitive. ‘There has, however, been a big improve- 
ment in the district controlled by the International 
Municipal Government. Its Moral Welfare League has 
succeeded in driving out the numerous brothels and vice 
centres but, of course, most of the dissolute characters have 
simply moved into the French Concession or into the Chi- 
nese city which still continues to license dens of vice. 

Missionary activities with nearly 500 workers are busily 
engaged in their uplift work. It is hard to keep moral 
restraint in a city with triangular municipal governments 
which do not co-operate with one another. 

It is the fashionable rendezvous of the Far East. ‘The 
quality folk drive past the Bubbling Well in automobiles 
of the latest models, much as New Yorkers frequent Central 
Park in their stylish equipages. “There are handsomely 
gowned women everywhere displaying the most advanced 
Parisian fashions. 


SHANGHAI 226 


In the Treaty of Nanking,—the first treaty between China 
and any foreign Power,—Shanghai was named as the most 
northern of the five ports which were to be opened for resi- 
dence and trade. At that time it was only a fishing village, 
and the now handsome Bund was merely a footpath along 
the water front. 

Now everywhere one sees great office buildings, hotels, 
warehouses, factories, and every sign of modern business 
life. Shanghai has from the beginning vied with Hong- 
Kong in being the most progressive city in China. 

‘There are some landmarks that are conspicuous, including 
the Custom House, the Cathedral, the Lyceum Theatre, the 
Hotels and private Clubs, as well as some very pretentious 
and modern Chinese theatres. 

Shanghai is in part an international city governed by 
the Treaty Powers, but there are three municipalities,— 
Chinese, French and the International. “The last named is 
governed by a council whose members serve without salary, 
who are chosen by European, American and Japanese tax- 
payers. [he wealthy Chinese taxpayers are agitating the 
matter of being represented in this international municipality 
- in view of the fact that nine-tenths of the taxes collected 
in Shanghai are paid by the Chinese. 

‘There are large and progressive Chinese enterprises like 
the Commercial Press, which employs over 2,000 skilled 
workers. It has ail the phases of social betterment, such 
as restaurants, roof garden, savings bank (giving nine per 
cent. interest), bonuses, pensions and death benefits, and its 
work is limited to nine hours a day. 

The International Council is responsible for the beautiful 
roads and parks and modern improvements, having made the 
city a model foreign settlement, both as regards beauty and 
sanitation. 

‘The fact that Shanghai is in reality an international city 
makes a complication of judicial courts. Every foreigner is 
amenable only to the laws of his own country. ‘This results 
in the anomalous condition that the citizen of one coun- 


226 GIPTP NA 


try may be fined or imprisoned for doing what a citizen of 
another country may do with impunity. There is in 
Shanghai a mixed court for cases between foreigners and 
Chinese with two magistrates,—a Chinese and a foreigner. 

Shanghai is dominated by foreign people and influences. 
Great manufacturing plants have been established, as the 
natives are quickly trained and prove themselves industrious 
workers. ‘There are many cotton mills owned largely by 
the Japanese and it was the inhuman conditions in these 
that gave rise to the strikes and riots in the early summer 
of 1925 which afterwards spread over the empire. 

Under normal conditions Shanghai is the great commer- 
cial centre of China. With foreign capital and the cheap 
and skilled Chinese labour, together with raw materials 
almost at the door, it will be able to undersell in certain 
activities all the rest of the world in a very few years. 

‘The street scenes are full of colour, with every sort of 
national costume. ‘There are Chinese from every province 
in the country, natives from all parts of the Indian Empire, 
together with Japanese, Russians, Englishmen, Frenchmen, 
Americans, Malays, Parsees, Sikhs, Koreans, Cingalese, Per- 
sians, Turks, Javanese,—in fact, every country under heaven 
is represented, making a medley of picturesque humanity. 

While Chinese Shanghai is shabby and malodorous, Euro- 
pean Shanghai is as proud and pretentious as London or 
New York. ‘The Bund which faces the water-front might 
in appearance be the Michigan Boulevard of Chicago, and 
its great banks, legations and residences make a regal city. 
The highest buildings are of six stories, as the mud founda- 
tions make higher buildings impracticable. 


PRINCIPAL SiG 


In addition to several Chinese and Japanese parks, there 
are four others reserved for foreigners: the Public Garden, 
which contains some notable monuments, the New Garden, 


the Hongkew Garden and the French Public Garden. 


SIGHTSEEING 227 


Foochow Road is a sort of “great white way” with gay 
theatres and elaborate restaurants making an attractive place 
for an evening visit. At Tibet Road begins the Bubbling 
Well Road, an old and famous residence street. Here is 
the race course which formerly was in the outskirts, but is 
now near the heart of the city. When great races are on, 
Shanghai takes a half holiday. Here are also cricket grounds, 
tennis courts, and a band stand where public concerts are 
given. “The American colony is in the French settlement, 
having many palatial homes on Joffre Avenue. 

‘The Rubicund Road is the great motor drive, the round 
trip of which can be made within an hour. It includes a 
charming panorama of suburban and country life. 

In the native city is a garden with an interesting temple 
dedicated to the tutelary god of Shanghai. ‘The conspicuous 
seven-story pagoda is connected with the Loong-wha-loy 
temple, which makes a worth-while visit for people who are 
not sated with temples. 

The Radio Corporation of America has built a 1,000,- 
o0o0o-watt central radio station at Shanghai with seven steel 
towers one thousand feet high, the tallest structures ever 
designed. ‘This station will connect with radio stations in 
the five provinces of China and other parts of Asia. ‘The 
total cost is $13,000,000. 

Night life in Shanghai means the elbowing of one’s way 
through Chinese crowds which are surging in the streets, 
the theatres and the tea houses. In the latter places the 
“sing-song’ girls and noisy tom-tom musicians are giving 
their characteristic form of entertainment. 

The Chinese are devoted to the “movies” and enjoy Amer- 
ican films which are duly expounded by an interpreter, 
gesticulating like an acrobat, at the side of the stage. Charlie 
Chaplin is their beau ideal of a comedian. 

The Chinese theatres are probably the most pretentious 
in the country, with exceptionally imposing buildings of 
striking architectural design, and with stage settings of a 
particularly rich and elaborate character. 


228 CHINA 
PRACTICAL "FAG 


Hotels. ‘The best hotel is the Astor House, with 200 
rooms and elaborate modern improvements. “The Palace is 
also entirely comfortable. 

The prices run from six to ten (American) dollars a day 
and everything is on a corresponding scale. It costs five 
dollars an hour for the hire of a motor car, and twenty-five 
cents for a daily paper. Vast profits made in the World 
War trade have remained untaxed, and the high cost of 
living is growing apace. ‘There are evidences of luxury 
which are hardly surpassed in New York or London and at 
a higher cost. 

Conveyances. Cacttigest with horses are about one 
dollar (American) an hour; a half day, three dollars; a 
full day, five dollars. Rikishas can be had at more mod- 
erate rates. Prices are apt to vary according to the appli- 
cant, being noticeably higher to American tourists. 

Missions. ‘The various missionary societies have large 
activities and many workers, who together make up a colony 
of several hundred Americans and Europeans. ‘The prin- 
cipal missions are the London Missionary Society in Shan- 
tung Road, the American Presbyterian Mission in Peking 
Road, the Church Missionary Society in Range Road, the 
Southern Methodist in Quinshan Road, the American Prot- 
estant Episcopal in Jessfield Road, the China Inland Mission 
in Woosong Road and the Roman Catholic in Woochang 
Road. 

Churches. Among these are the Holy Trinity Cathe- 
dral in Kiangse Road, the Union Church in Soochow Road, 
the Church of Our Saviour in Broadway and St. Joseph’s 
Catholic Church on Rue Montauban. 

The Cantonese Baptist Institutional Church on the Bund 
has kindergartens, baths, gymnasiums, tennis courts and a 
hall for giving entertainments and religious plays. 

There are Bible Societies that sell hundreds of thousands 
of Bibles in the vernacular, as well as large and active 


PreeeCTICAL HINTS 229 


organisations of the Y. M. C. A., the Y. W. C. A., and 
other Christian philanthropies. 

Mission Schools. Among the mission schools are the 
Thomas Hanbury School for Eurasian children, the Anglo- 
Chinese College in Quinshan Road, and the London Mission 
College in Hongkew Road. There are many public and 
private schools both for European and for native children. 

St. John’s University is one of the foremost in China, set 
in a beautiful campus, and is under the direction of the 
Episcopal Church. 

St. Luke’s and St. Elizabeth’s Hospitals, the London 
Mission Hospital, the Margaret Williamson Hospital for 
Women, the McTyerie High School for Chinese girls and 
many chapels, secondary schools, orphanages, etc., are carry- 
ing on a large and transforming work. 

The Siccawei Settlement (Catholic) has some large mis- 
sionary activities, including a school of several thousand girls, 
who are taught embroidery and lace making, and nearby is a 
factory, where boys learn to make carved teakwood furniture 
and articles in metal. The large output makes this work 
profitable, as well as useful. 

Shopping. ‘The Nanking Road is the most conspicuous 
shopping street, with prominent foreign and native shops. 
Two large Chinese department stores, occupying opposite 
sides of the street at the Chekiang Road crossing, have roof 
gardens, restaurants and a great variety of merchandise. The 
best native shops are found in the International Settlement 
and silks and furs in the Honan Road. People who wish to 
shop in China and have no opportunity to do so in Peking 
or Canton had better do their buying in Shanghai. 

The best jewellery is to be found on Nanking Road, 
although on side streets the prices are lower but often the 
goods are not so reliable. “The best shops are sometimes 
one price (although even here discreet bargaining may be 
advantageous). In the native shops a half or a third or less 
of the price asked should be paid. 

Here are to be found Chinese jewellery, ivories, porce- 


230 CHINA 


lains, carved chopsticks, idols, brocades, antiques, jade, man- 
darin coats and embroidered linens and silks, all of excellent 
quality and quite reasonable in price. Hu-tsen, or “the 
city,” is the native quarter as distinguished from the con- 
cessions and suburbs. It has many narrow, filthy streets 
which, however, contain some fine shops with silk brocades, 
curios, jewellery, porcelains and many forms of ivory work. 

In the centre of Shanghai is a small artificial lake, in the 
middle of which is the “Willow Pattern Tea House,” so 
famous in pictures sometimes seen on china plates, with its 
romantic story of the eloping lovers who fled from here and 
were turned into doves. ‘They not only serve tea in this 
dingy retreat, but there are booths for shoppers, curios 
being a specialty—Shanghai, with the exception of Peking, 
being the best curio centre. “There is a kaleidoscopic picture 
of Chinese life in all this part of the city. Many Chinese 
men bring their birds here with them, as it is their custom 
to take these pets out for an airing. The bird cages are 
gaily decked with tassels and have fancy cups for food and 
water. The members of the family are often left at home, 
but the bird is never forgotten. 


HONG-KONG 


The island of Hong-Kong (the word means “Fragrant 
Streams” because boats formerly got their water from the 
hillsides) is eleven miles long and from two to five miles 
wide, with an area of thirty square miles. Owing to the 
fact that British traders were not allowed to do business in 
Canton, they were granted permission, in 1842, to establish 
themselves at Hong-Kong. At the close of the Opium War, 
Great Britain acquired it under the terms of the Treaty of 
Nanking. 

Hong-Kong is in a very strategic position, as it controls 
the Straits of Malacca on the south, and the Straits of 
Formosa on the north, and is on the direct highway to the 
trade of China and India. 


SIKH TRAFFIC POLICEMAN AT HONGKONG 
CARRYING CHICKENS. NOTE BAMBOO SCAFFOLDING 








HONG-KONG 231 


It has a commerce second only to London and New York, 
the total imports (1923) being 248,083,450 taels, and the 
exports, 175,796,249 taels (a tael is 77 American cents). 
Hong-Kong is becoming the great Asiatic emporium of 
commerce because of the new railway to Canton, connecting 
also with other parts of China, and of the new railways to 
Singapore, Calcutta, Bankok and other Asiatic centres. 

The Hong-Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation is 
financially behind many of the great enterprises, such as 
mines, railways, and manufacturing interests. 

In 1860, the Kowloon Peninsula across from Hong-Kong 
was acquired by Great Britain, and in 1898 another strip 
was added, making a total of 800 square miles. ‘The Euro- 
pean part of Kowloon has many attractive new buildings. 

Hong-Kong is a Crown Colony, the Governor General 
and an Executive Council of seven members having full con- 
trol, although there is an Advisory Legislature of thirteen 
members, including two Chinese. 

The entire group of islands, of which Hong-Kong is one, 
was called the Ladrones or Robbers’ Islands at a time when 
the entire adjoining sea coasts, and the Pearl River as well, 
were infested with cut-throat pirates. It is still true that 
some small freight steamers are occasionally attacked, and 
all passenger vessels have armed guards to insure safety. 

The Harbour is fifteen square miles in size, well pro- 
tected, sufficiently deep to admit the largest ocean steamers, 
and is surrounded by mountains on the mainland having an 
altitude of over 3,000 feet. “Iyphoons sometimes play havoc 
with shipping, but do not occur during the usual tourists’ 
season. In a typhoon in 1906 there was a casualty list of 
10,000, and in 1874, 50,000 lost their lives along the coast 
in the region of Macao. A meteorological station, now 
giving advance warning, usually prevents any serious disaster. 

One can encircle the entire Island via a fine military road, 
in a motor ride of twenty-two miles, thus getting delightful 
perspectives of mountain and sea views. It is one of the 
really charming drives in Asia. It is usual for people who 


232 CHINA 


motor over this course to stop for afternoon tea or dinner 
at the Repulse Bay Hotel, which is an idyllic spot, the superb 
Hotel having a picturesque setting. 

The name of the city itself, which extends four miles 
along the Bay front, is Victoria, but this name is usually 
ignored in the larger name of Hong-Kong. It undoubtedly 
is the most beautiful city in the Far East. The population 
(1922), including Kowloon, is 625,166, but there are less 
than 15,000 foreigners, including the army and navy. 
Although ninety-five per cent. of the people are Chinese, 
Hong-Kong itself is not a Chinese city. It is distinctively 
British, and the evidence of British control is seen in the 
great engineering triumphs, the superb roads, the beautiful 
business buildings, the splendid hotels, and in an unmis- 
takable air of prosperity. 

It is very evident that the coming of Great Britain to 
Hong-Kong has been a great blessing. In seventy-five years 
Britain has transformed a little fishing village on a bare 
island, in a region infested with pirates, into one of the great 
world-centres of trade. On every side in Hong-Kong one 
can see the results of British efficiency, law and permanence. 
One is impressed in seeing sizable hills being removed by 
the handwork of coolies to make way for stately buildings. 
The strikes of 1925 paralysed business for a time. 

The port is free, save for opium and liquors. The baggage 
of visitors is rarely examined. Opium remains a British 
Government monopoly, and while the Government visits 
heavy penalties upon smugglers, opium is freely sold by the 
Government and widely used, thus making the Government 
responsible for the continuation of a degrading vice which 
the Government of China has been trying in vain to extirpate. 
This is really a serious indictment against Great Britain’s 
otherwise broad and beneficent colonial programme. 

Hong-Kong is developing a number of manufacturing 
plants, including sugar refineries, rope, glass and cement 
factories, and ship-building docks. ‘This is all the more 


SIGHTSEEING 233 


remarkable in view of the fact that all its raw material must 
be imported from long distances. 

Hong-Kong furnishes a most unusual night scene, whether 
from a ship in the harbour looking upon the ascending glory 
of lights to the top of the Peak, the entire city and mountain 
appearing to be decorated with luminous diamonds,—or 
whether one stands on the Peak and looks down upon a city 
with its unusual brilliant lighting and the harbour radiant 
with scores of illumined ships, including warships of many 
nationalities, and then beyond to the lights of Kowloon. 
Such a view makes one of the memorable nights of life, and 
is an outstanding experience in Round-the-World travel. 

Approaching Hong-Kong, the landing is made at Kow- 
loon near the ferry. One can cross this ferry to Hong-Kong, 
disembarking on the Esplanade or water-front with its im- 
pressive row of buildings given over to shipping and com- 
merce. A short climb up to a higher level brings one to the 
Government buildings, hotels, churches and shopping dis- 
tricts. 

There are three parallel business streets, on which most 
of the shops and commercial houses are located, each on a 
progressively higher level. ‘The one facing the water-front 
is Connaught Road, the next is Des Voeux Road, and the 
third is Queens Road. ‘These three embrace most of the 
business section, although large districts are given over to 
Chinese shops, many of them large and up-to-date. 

Still ascending, one passes through villas with charming 
gardens, including the small and not very important Botani- 
cal Garden. One governor was instrumental in planting 
one million trees on the Island during his administration. 
From this stage one can take the funicular railway to the . 
Peak, or, if preferred, the heights may be reached by an 
extraordinarily picturesque automobile road, making sweep- 
ing circles with striking panoramic views. 

The Peak is 1,828 feet above the Bay, and its slopes are 
clustered with the attractive homes of British residents set 
in exquisite little terraced gardens. ‘The Peak gives a pano- 


234 CHINA 


rama that fairly makes the beholder gasp with its variety 
and beauty. From this point of vantage “the Peakites look 
down upon the ‘Kowlunatics.’”” At the flag-staff above the 
Peak, Canton itself can be seen on a clear day. 

Hong-Kong on account of its recent growth has few dis- 
tinctive sights, although the City is a constant delight, and 
its walks in the “Happy Valley” and its incomparable drives 
make most enjoyable objectives. 

Most of Hong-Kong and Kowloon consists of ‘“China- 
town, and rikishaing and walking through the kaleido- 
scopic streets is a source of perennial interest, especially to 
those who have seen little of the native life in other Chinese 
cities. ‘The Chinese here do not live in small shacks lining 
narrow alleys, as is true elsewhere in China, but in wide 
streets having high tenements, many dwellers being crowded 
together in a single room. 

It is not uncommon to see women coolies engaged in the 
heaviest kinds of manual labour, such as carrying stone and 
building materials in two baskets suspended cn a pole car- 
ried over their shoulders. “These women work for twenty- 
five cents a day, and the cost of male labour is only a little 
higher. Of course their manner of living is very primitive, 
and they are easily satisfied with a bowl of rice and fish and 
some fruit. A corner of the floor, or a stone by the wayside 
is often, apparently, a sufficient bed. Nearly 50,000 live in 
the sampans and other watercraft of the Bay and River. 

The Sing-song girls in the floral boats and in the restau- 
rants give a little artistic touch in costume and dancing to 
the sordid surroundings of their slavish life of shame. 


GENERAL FAG Es 


Hotels. The principal hotels are the Hong-Kong, Astor, 
Grand, Carleton, King Edward, and the Peak. ‘The prices 
are quite high but the service, as a rule, is excellent. 

Hong-Kong has its own currency, but its value is about 


GENERAL FACTS 235 


the same as Chinese money elsewhere. English money is 
also current. 

Conveyances. It is difficult to give any exact rates for 
chairs, rikishas, or motor cars. Chairs usually may be hired 
for twenty cents (American) an hour, or about two dollars 
a day. Motor cars are about three to five dollars per hour. 
The Kowloon Ferry has a fare of ten cents, with poate 
usually running every ten minutes. 

Climate. ‘The climate is quite temperate, though the 
summers are hot. The annual average is 72°. ‘The average 
temperature in July is 87° and in February 62° F., rarely 
falling below 45°. Kowloon is cooler than the City itself, 
as it gets the monsoon breezes. 

Since 1894, when 3,000 people died from bubonic plague, 
mosquitoes have been destroyed and the plague practically 
eliminated. 

There is a fine system of pure water for Hong-Kong and 
Kowloon. 

Churches. St. John’s Cathedral (Episcopal), erected in 
1842, located in Garden Road, St. Peter’s (for sailors), St. 
Stephen’s (for Chinese), a Union Protestant Church in 
‘ Kennedy Road, a Wesleyan Chapel, several Roman Cath- 
olic Churches, including the Cathedral in Caine Road, a 
Jewish Synagogue, two Mosques, and a Sikh Temple (the 
Police are Sikhs, numbering 1,341 men), provide for the 
religious needs of Hong-Kong. Some of these Cathedrals 
and Churches make conspicuous landmarks on the ascend- 
ing slopes of the city. Sir John Bowring, who wrote the 
immortal hymn “In the Cross of Christ I Glory,” was a 
Governor of Hong-Kong at the time of its writing. 

Schools. ‘There are twelve primary and secondary gov- 
ernment schools, with 28,707 pupils, carried on at an annual 
expense of $478,583, besides several private and mission 
schools conducted by various denominations. Hong-Kong 
University, dating from 1910, with 309 students (1922), 
which is a conspicuous feature of the landscape, has mostly 
Chinese young men. In 1922 the Rockefeller Foundation 


236 CHINA 


donated $500,000 for chairs of medicine and surgery. 
Queens College is also open to the Chinese. 

Shopping. It should be distinctly understood that 
Hong-Kong does not compare as a shopping centre with 
Canton, Shanghai or Peking, but it is the best place to buy 
the peacock-back chairs of reed or grass. “These should not 
cost more than three or four dollars gold. “There are some 
Chinese articles, coming largely from Canton and Swatow, 
that are quite characteristic. Hong-Kong is an excellent 
place to secure Shantung silk suits at low prices, but it is 
important to furnish the Chinese tailors with well-fitting 
suits to serve as models. It is necessary to do careful bar- 
gaining all over China, although a few British and Chinese 
shops call themselves ‘‘fixed price’ establishments. Even 
here, however, discounts will often be made. “The China- 
man is a shrewd business man and naturally gets the largest 
price obtainable. At the same time, a bargain once made 
is strictly adhered to and a Chinaman in business is always 
reliable. ‘There is a current saying, “Never break your 
word with a Chinese, for he will never break his word with 
you.” 

Restaurants. In fine restaurants tourists may get appe- 
tising native dinners of bamboo shoots, shark’s fins, almonds, 
chicken, rice, birds’ nest soup, sweets and flower tea. Birds’ 
nest soup is made from the glutinous nests procured in the 
caves of Borneo. ‘The real article is extremely valuable, a 
single case being worth a thousand dollars. Hence substi- 
tutes are frequently made to pass for the original. 


THE TRIP«<TO, CA a 


The distance between Hong-Kong and Canton on the 
Pearl River is seventy-eight miles. Leaving the Hong-Kong 
pier, the river steamer passes through the harbour and bay 
with Green Island to the left with its conspicuous light- 
house, and Stone Cutter’s Island, which is very heavily 
fortified, on the right. The highest mountain in the back- 





SAMPAN LIFE AT CANTON 
TEMPLE OF THE DEAD, WOOD CARVINGS 





PEARL RIVER 237 


ground on the mainland has an altitude of 3,000 feet. After 
the passage of more than an hour through the harbour and 
bay, the steamer enters the Chu-kiang, or Pearl River, 
sometimes called the Canton River. As pirates are active 
on this river, all boats are protected by armed guards. When 
captured no mercy is shown them, fifty having been shot in 
a single week, but the number seems to be increasing. There 
is, however, no danger on the large passenger steamers used 
by foreigners. 

The river is full of odd and sometimes archaic Chinese 
craft giving interesting glimpses of boat life, although the 
shores are not usually near enough to show many details. 

‘The effect, however, is distinctly Chinese, especially as 
pagodas here and there loom up on the hilltops in an effective 
setting against the horizon. As Canton is approached a 
great five-story pagoda is a conspicuous feature. 

Sampan Life. ‘The river and the canals are filled with 
antique craft of varied design, motor boats lighted by elec- 
tricity, fine passenger steamers plying between Hong-Kong 
and Canton, and also sampans, a small boat with a curved 
shelter in the middle. It is said that fully 200,000 people 
are born and live and die in these boats, rarely touching 
terra firma. “These sampans are busy ferrying people from 
point to point, carrying small freight and doing all sorts of 
water chores. Large families spend their lives huddled to- 
gether in these narrow quarters. Little children have a cord 
fastened to them so that when they fall overboard, which 
frequently happens, they can easily be hauled back into the 
boat. The condition of the sluggish water, which is the 
sewer and garbage receptacle, can be imagined. But it does 
not seem, in the mind of a “sampaner,” to lessen its value 
for cooking and drinking purposes. Sampan people, until 
the Republic was established, could not marry land people. 
They are rather regarded as descendants of pirates and 
escaped prisoners, and they look it! 

The so-called “flower boats” are gaily festooned and gar- 
landed, and are illuminated with lanterns by night. ‘They 


238 CHINA 


are the pleasure boats for dancing, gambling, and every 
form of moral irregularity, although sometimes they are 
hired for wedding receptions and festival occasions. “They 
are usually much larger than the ordinary sampan. 

Some of the old-fashioned boats with large stern-wheel 
propellers, the power of which is contributed by a score of 
coolies working a treadmill, often reach the dizzy speed of 
three miles an hour. 

The Canton-Kowloon Railway to Canton is eighty miles 
in length, of which the British section, costing $250,000 a 
mile and comprising thirty-two miles, includes the 7,200-foot 
tunnel through Beacon Hill. 

The railroad journey is more diverting and enjoyable than 
the steamer trip because of the constant moving picture of 
native life in towns, villages and country districts, and be- 
cause it gives an opportunity of studying the methods of 
agriculture and the various kinds of crops. It may be said 
in this connection that wealthy landholders own large tracts 
of land, which is apportioned in small sections of an acre or 
two to individual peasants, usually on the basis of half the 
crop. Sometimes, though not often, a thrifty peasant accu- 
mulates money enough to buy an individual strip of land 
for himself, 


CANTON 


Canton, still called Yang-Shing, the City of Rams, was 
founded before the Christian era. According to tradition, 
five genii, each riding a ram carrying an ear of corn in its 
mouth, appeared suddenly in the market place of primeval 
Canton and said, “May famine and dearth never visit your 
city.’ “The genii vanished, but the rams turned into stone, 
and in the Temple of the Five Genii, rudely fashioned rams 
are pointed out as the originals. 

The Old Wall was formerly six miles in circumference, 
‘and had seventeen gates, but the moats have been filled up 
and the walls largely torn down and paved streets from 


CANTON 239 


eighty to one hundred and fifty feet wide have been built 
over the site, on which hundreds of motor cars, an electric 
tramway, together with many other forms of traffic com- 
mingle in bewildering confusion. 

Portuguese traders first came in 1511, followed a hun- 
dred years ago by the British who carried on a trade in silks 
and tea. Americans also established thriving commercial 
relations, exchanging cotton cloths and sandal wood (the 
latter procured in Hawaii) for tea and silks. Some sailing 
ships in the old days made a fortune in a single voyage, 
although such a trip might have taken two years for com- 
pletion. 

By the terms of the Nanking Treaty, all foreign trade 
was confined to Canton, and large profits were made by both 
Chinese and foreigners. With the opening of Hong-Kong 
and other ports, however, Canton lost much of its commer- 
cial prestige. The railroad recently built connecting with 
important Asiatic cities will tend to restore Canton’s status 
as a commercial city. 

Shameen, the European quarter (word means island), 
is over two miles from Canton Station, but small connect- 
ing motor boats are available and there is also a macadam 
road on which motors or rikishas can be used. 

In the War of 1841, the homes of foreign residents were 
destroyed, and they were given a mud flat which has grad- 
ually been changed into a fine residential section known as 
the Shameen. This quarter covers forty-four acres, of 
which four-fifths is British and one-fifth is French. It is 
an Island separated by a narrow estuary which is crossed 
by two bridges which are usually closed at ten o’clock at 
night. | 
The Shameen is protected with guards, gates and bridges 
as well as high barbed wire entanglements along the river 
front. ‘The Chinese are not permitted to go on the Island 
except with the consent of individual owners. No one 
passes the bridge gates without being searched for weapons, 
although the Europeans pass over the bridge unchallenged 


240 CLIN 


on the assumption that their respective Governments will 
assume responsibility for them. No Chinese craft are 
allowed to be docked on the European bank, but are in 
crowded evidence on the other side of the narrow channel, 
giving abundant materials for a study of sampan life. In 
1925, Shameen was besieged by Chinese rioters. 

In the Shameen are the consulates, the hotel, the banks 
and post offices, as well as charming villas set in attractive 
gardens, the Island being well shaded by banyan and other 
trees. 

Canton Streets. It would be impossible for a stranger 
to walk alone through the narrow streets of old Canton, 
not only because he would soon be lost in the maze, but 
also because he would be necessarily jostled by a heterogen- 
eous populace, such as perspiring chair coolies and men with 
poles over their shoulders carrying baskets containing their 
wares. In a sedan chair a person is lifted above such un- 
pleasant contact. Even some of the important thoroughfares 
of the old town have streets measuring not over nine feet 
from building to building—some only about six feet wide. 

Old Canton has still hundreds of streets so narrow, that 
it is hard for two sedan chairs to pass each other. ‘These 
streets are indescribably filthy and malodorous, and to many 
people seem a veritable nightmare. Sights are disgusting, 
odours are abominable,—everywhere poverty, filth and igno- 
rance are glaringly in evidence. “The names of some of these 
streets translated are “(Heavenly Peace,” ‘“Golden Flower,” 
“Pearl,” and other fanciful names, hardly in accord with 
the gruesome realities. In the last several years, however, 
some wide avenues have been constructed, giving the city a 
more modern and Europeanised aspect in certain places. 

In the narrow streets there are usually no fronts to the 
shops, the family living, eating and sleeping in the open 
booths, and there are no sewers, except in the middle of the 
dark passageways, which are congested with dogs, children, 
burden-bearers and sedan chairs. Here are also restaurants 
and shops, with food exposed to the dirt and flies and multi- 


CANTON FOLKS 241 


tudinous handlings. One sees suspended the carcasses of 
cats, dogs and snakes, and other delectable dishes. 

A law has been passed forbidding the use of rats as food 
on the ground that they are plague carriers, but they are 
still surreptitiously eaten because of the popular belief that 
the flesh makes good “medicine.” 

The People. ‘The Cantonese are more progressive and 
are intellectually more alert than are most of the people in 
other parts of China. They had schools and even colleges 
before the advent of Great Britain. Now there are many 
modern common and secondary schools, as well as technical 
schools and colleges. ‘These are largely carried on by mis- 
sionary activity. 

When a man marries a widow he loses social caste thereby 
as does the widow also, for the widow who does not remarry 
receives special honour. It is not unusual for men of means 
to have several wives and perhaps some concubines. Appar- 
ently there is little suggestion of jealousy among them. 

Canton is very loosely connected with the Peking Govern- 
ment, in fact, Peking is very much in disfavour. Even in 
the old days, songs reviling the Manchu Government were 
sung and sold in the streets of Canton. Most of the Chinese 
in America came from Canton, and these American Chinese 
join with the Cantonese in open antagonism to the Peking 
Government. ‘The Chinese in Hawaii, the Philippines and 
the Far East are also largely Cantonese. 

The Cantonese say that everything new originates in Can- 
ton, which is certainly true of political plots, as here before 
the days of the Republic the plans for the Republican revo- 
lutions were made. ‘The Cantonese are naturally quick- 
witted and full of initiative, and formerly were wont to 
excel in the difficult Chinese examinations which required 
such prodigious memories. Many of the best known men in 
China come from Canton. 

It is said that the new administration in the Government 
at Canton closed all gambling joints, including one called 
the “high class Christian (!) gambling parlour,” although 


242 CHINA 


this prohibition of gambling is reported to have been made 
at a loss of $10,000,000 annual revenue. 


SPECIAL SIGH Ts 
The Temple of the Five Hundred Genii has among 


its sculptured super-men an effigy of Pau Low, who is 
none other than the Italian adventurer, Marco Polo, prob- 
ably the first European that ever visited China. If he looked 
like his image, it is not likely that he posed as an Adonis. 

In front of all the lavishly gilded images there is a bronze 
or porcelain urn into which worshippers put their burning 
joss sticks, some images being favoured above others. A so- 
called Calamity Bell connected with this Temple is only 
rung when warning of disaster. 

The Flowery Pagoda is a conspicuous landmark and a 
remarkable structure, well worthy of a visit, and is reached 
by passing through a very congested part of the City. 

The Execution Grounds of a decade ago, where tourists 
saw the ground strewn with beheaded corpses, is now only 
amemory. ‘This is one of the few improvements introduced 
by the Republic. 

The Old Examination Hall, with its 10,616 compart- 
ments, each six by eight feet, is gone. In these the student 
lived, studied and took his nine day examinations. 

The tall minaret known as the Plain Pagoda is a part 
of a Moslem Mosque built over a thousand years ago by 
Arabian traders. 

There is a Roman Catholic Church with two imposing 
steeples which form a conspicuous city feature. Ordinarily 
such steeples would not be acceptable to the superstitious 
ideas of the City Fathers, as they would hold that they 
- might attract hostile evil spirits. “Ihe Catholic authorities, 
however, were able very shrewdly to gain their point. 
They asked the City officials, “Is not Canton the City of 
the rams?”—referring to the tradition of the Five Genii 
coming into the city riding rams. “Let us, therefore,” they 


SIGHTSEEING 243 


said, “put on the horns.” ‘This proved acceptable to the 
authorities. 

The many-storied Pawn Shops are a prominent fea- 
ture of Canton and are built very high in order to defend 
their treasures against fire and robbers, being also surrounded 
by tall square walls of black brick. Even now the roof 
would be a strategic place from which to throw bombs 
if these storehouses were attacked. “They contain an unmeas- 
ured wealth of embroideries, silks, teakwood and ivory carv- 
ings, etc., and opportunities are sometimes given to pur- 
chasers to make advantageous bargains. 

City of the Dead. Here stalls containing coffins are set 
in an arcade, which is ornamented with porcelain jars, ban- 
ners and tinsel flowers. It depends on the wealth of the 
family how long the body is kept in the coffin. ‘There 
are also strange-looking and elaborate mausolea used only 
by the very rich. The price of rental space in the City of 
the Dead is $150 for three months and $25 per month there- 
after, although some are cheaper. ‘The priests decide the 
time and place of burial, and they keep the bodies as long as 
possible, meanwhile collecting the rent. Some have been 
there as long as thirty years. A five minute walk from an 
automobile or carriage must be taken to reach this place, 
passing through narrow defiles lined with the most spec- 
tacular and vociferous beggars, but it is most fascinating. 

The Temples, numbering perhaps two hundred, are 
shabby and tawdry and given over to filth and decay. The 
infrequent worshippers, in a rather nonchalant manner, bring 
offerings of food and drink, which are placed on altars on 
which incense sticks are also burned. Out of a heap of 
miscellaneous numbers in a bamboo vase they take one at 
random and the ignorant priest gives them a prayer on a 
sheet of red paper corresponding to the number. ‘These 
they light and throw into a bronze receptacle and their 
worship is complete. 

At the funeral of some prominent worthy the procession 
is led by a native orchestra discoursing hideous music; then 


24.4 CHINA 


follow in regular order lantern bearers, immense floral 
tributes, a sedan chair carrying a large roast pig (together 
with great trays of food on china and glass), for the use of 
the deceased, another chair containing the ancestral tablets of 
the family, the coffin containing the body, and finally the 
male relatives walking in line, followed by the female rela- 
tives in chairs. Under a huge canopy with enclosed sides 
walk the children, when there are such, of the deceased. 
Boats carrying the funeral procession are attended with 
screeching “‘sirens,” ringing bells and the noise of clashing 
cymbals in order to frighten away evil spirits. 

The rich have their own mausolea, usually set against 
the hillsides, while the poor bury their dead in graves scat- 
tered irregularly over the landscape. ‘These must never be 
violated and hence the avoiding of them has been one of the 
great obstacles in building highways and railroads, as it is 
almost impossible to get a straight line without interfering 
with graves. 

Hotel. The Hotel Victoria is the only European hotel, 
and it is poorly kept. Fortunately, a new hotel, under 
the management of the Hong-Kong Hotel, is building. 
‘There is a very large conspicuous building called the Asiatic 
Hotel, to which foreigners sometimes go, but it is largely 
pre-empted by well-to-do Chinese and is not recommended. 

Money. Paper money and notes, issued by the Hong- 
Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation and other banks, 
are in use. ‘The silver coins (Chinese) are one dollar, as 
well as fifty, twenty-five, ten and five cent pieces, and cop- 
per coins of one cent and of smaller “‘cash” which has a hole 
in the middle and is worth about one-eighteenth of an Amer- 
ican cent. Formerly the Chinese dollar was standardised 
at fifty cents, but owing to the increase in the value of 
silver, it is now worth about fifty-six cents, and at one time 
during the World War it was actually worth more than an 
American dollar. . 

Climate. The climate, although excessively humid, is 








CANTON STREET SCENE 





Seay) ON SHOPPING . 245 


comfortable, except in summer when it is extremely hot, the 
temperature often rising over 100° F. 

Christian Work. The Canton Y. M. C. A. is governed 
by Chinese directors and has 3,000 members, with thirteen 
Chinese secretaries. “There is an Episcopal service in 
Shameen and the American Presbyterians, Baptists and 
Methodists are carrying on aggressive Mission work. 

The Kung Lee Hospital and Medical School and Anglican 
Girls’ School, the Catholic School and Milissions, are all 
doing excellent work. 

The Canton Christian College is one of the most con- 
spicuous educational centres in China with over 1,000 
students and 165 professors and teachers. Its B.A. degree 
admits to postgraduate work in Columbia or Yale. ‘This 
work, which is undenominational, deserves a visit, when 
possible, and should have the support of Christian Americans 
in its transforming influence. 

Shops and Shopping. In the better streets there are 
shops with every conceivable kind of merchandise, much of 
which is manufactured in the shop itself. Here are to be 
found fans, screens, embroideries, lace, slippers, perfumery, 
lacquer, wood carving, ivory carving, mother-of-pearl inlay, 
optical instruments (crystal eye-glass grinding being a spe- 
cialty), rattan furniture, cloisonné, gold and silver-carved 
table articles, women’s ornaments, vases, cigarette boxes, 
ivory cane handles and buttons, precious stones in necklaces 
and other jewellery, sandalwood carving, turquoise, which is 
one of Canton’s specialties, feather fans with carved ivory, 
kingfisher feather jewellery (another Cantonese specialty), 
silk fabrics and embroideries, ceremonial and masquerade 
garments, mandarin coats, screens, and especially embroid- 
ered tablecloths, napkins and curtains. 

Whole streets are given over to a particular line of trade 
or manufacturing. For instance, one street sells only jade 
carvings and ornaments, another ivory, another teak-wood 
furniture. Jade is believed by the Chinese to have the 


Brack CHINA 


power to take away sin and to give the wearer ‘‘merit” and 
virtue. 

Canton is perhaps the most important inland commercial 
centre in China, and has large exports of raw silk (which 
is obtained in eight different harvestings annually from the 
silk worms), silk fabrics, mattings, tea, preserved ginger, 
firecrackers, sandalwood articles, precious stones, ivory carv- 
ings and fine paper. 

A Chinese Chamber of Commerce and two hundred organ- 
ised trade guilds of skilled workmen control the economic 
life of Canton and also, since the time of the Republic, exer- 
cise a very large political influence. The wages, however, 
are still very low. Labourers work from twelve to sixteen 
hours for five to ten dollars a month, and there are young 
children in match factories making six to eight cents a day. 


MACAO 


Macao is thirty-five miles from Hong-Kong and about 
eighty miles from Canton, and can be reached from either 
city named by a very pleasant steamer trip. 

Macao is a Portuguese settlement, and was secured in 
1557, because Portugal had assisted the Chinese Government 
to overcome and destroy the pirates which infested the 
adjoining waters. Hence Portugal set the pace for the 
inroads upon Chinese territory which has since been followed 
by various European countries. Here on a promontory is 
the Juia Lighthouse, the first one erected in China. 

The eighty thousand inhabitants of the colony are princi- 
pally Chinese, although there is a large Eurasian class. 
There are very few Portuguese of pure blood, and hence the 
people speak of themselves as ‘‘Macaoese.” While the 
Portuguese flag flutters from many homes as well as public 
buildings, the average inhabitant would have the vaguest 
conception as to what or where Portugal is. 

Macao has a picturesque crescent Bay, fronted by blue 
and yellow houses, on terraced slopes. ‘The principal claim 


MACAO 247 


for fame on the part of Macao is not its beauty or its unusual 
sight-seeing attractions, but rather its notoriety as a gambling 
resort, a very sordid Monte Carlo of the Far East. 

The extent of this colony is about three miles in length 
by half a mile in breadth. It is in fact, merely a rocky 
promontory. The Praia Grande, the principal street, fronts 
the sea for over a mile. A frontier gate and wal! separates 
the Portuguese territory from the Chinese. 

Formerly the harbour was quite deep, but it has gradually 
filled up and is too shallow for modern ships. Macao has 
very little commerce worthy of the name. Gambling is the 
main business, and concessions for fan-tan, roulette, and 
lottery and opium operations pay the entire expense of gov- 
ernment. The paralysis and stagnation of such a policy 
are evident, if one compares Macao with Hong-Kong, only 
forty miles away. 

‘There are scores of gambling places, all licensed, which 
range from the lowest fan-tan joints for natives and sailors 
to palatial establishments for the wealthier classes. At any 
of these the “dear public’ may be relieved of superfluous 
wealth. Opium dens and the shadiest of dives are numer- 
ous in this modern Sodom, where the Ten Commandments 
seem to have been outlawed. 

Macao has charming sub-tropical gardens, a fine drive 
along the water front, several parks with shady walks and 
floral display, and some palatial homes. 

There are Portuguese Churches and Convents with 
priests and resounding bells and a show as of a Christian 
community, but in reality Macao is one of the plague spots 
of the world, corrupting not only foolish sailors and foreign- 
ers who want to see the Oriental underworld, but the 
Chinese as well. 

The city is a hotbed of opium smoking. ‘The opium fac- 
tory there is the largest in the world employing hundreds of 
men, women and children. A single caldron of opium in 
the process of cooking has $2,000 worth of opium in it, a 
package that would fit a vest pocket being worth over $30. 


248 CO HTN 


This factory pays the Portuguese provincia: Government a 
revenue of $1,560,000, merely for the manufacturing privi- 
lege. It is secretly introduced into China in great quanti- 
ties and carried away in ships that smuggle it surreptitiously 
into every world port. Of course immense fortunes are 
made by those who engage in this nefarious traffic. “This 
accounts for great mansions, noble terraces and dream-land 
gardens. Macao itself consumed 24,784 pounds in 1921. 

Camoens, the great Portuguese poet, lived here for some 
years in political exile, and wrote some of his finest poems, 
including his great epic “The Luciad,’ which recites the 
glorious deeds of the Portuguese in Europe and Asia. It 
was mostly written on the rocky promontory of the author’s 
garden as he overlooked the city. | 

Among the graves in the cemetery is that of Rev. Robert 
Morrison, a pioneer missionary of China, who translated the 
Bible into Chinese. 


SUPPLEMENTARY FACTS Ake 
FIGURES 


On February 12, 1912, China, the oldest existing mon- 
archy and system of Government on earth, became a Re- 
public. The last Emperor, Hsitian Tung, who at this time 
was only six years of age, relinquished the throne. With his 
death his nominal title as Emperor of the Manchu Imperial 
House, together with his financial subsidies, will cease. 

The Government now has a President, a Vice President, 
a Senate of 264 members, and a House of Representatives 
with 596 members. Government affairs, however, are in a 
very chaotic condition, and Parliament has met very irregu- 
larly. The powerful military governors of the provinces 
known as Tuchuns are practically independent of Peking, 
the seat of Government, as they maintain their own armies. 
As the Government is without a national army, it cannot 
even collect is own revenues, except at the pleasure of the 
Tuchuns. 


Pees AND OFIGURES 249 


The Premier is nominated by the President and the nine 
Ministers of Departments are nominated by the Premier, 
all appointments requiring the sanction of both Houses. 
With the failure, however, of elections and the lapses of 
Parliamentary sessions, a Presidential Mandate is recognised 
as a ratification. “There are many foreigners in the employ 
of the Government. 

A Southern Government independent of Peking has been 
established at Canton by the People’s Party. Its members 
form the remnant of the original Parliament of the Republic 
which was dissolved in 1914 by the former President, Yuan 
Shih-kai. Its chief promoter, Dr. Sun Yat-sen, was elected 
“President of the Republic of China” on April 7, 1921. 
This Government claims to rule not only over all the South- 
ern Provinces, but the whole Republic, but in reality con- 
trols only Kwangtung and Kwangsi. 

The area, including Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet, etc., 
is 3,913,500 square miles. Its population, estimated, 1923, 
by the Chinese Post Office, is 436,094,953. “The Chinese 
Maritime Customs (1921) were $708,000,000. Estimated 
revenue for 1923, $528,036,517. 

There are 326,969 foreigners in China, mostly Japanese 
and Russians. 

The first United States treaty with China was made 
August 29, 1842. Present Minister, John A. MacMurray. 

At the Washington Conference in 1921, the nine Powers 
participating agreed on a policy to stabilise conditions in the 
Far East, to “safeguard the rights and interests of China 
and to promote intercourse between China and the other 
Powers upon the basis of equality of opportunity.” 

Formerly there was an intricate system of government 
examinations consisting largely of tests of the memorising of 
the Sacred Books. This has given way to Western learning 
and there are about 120,000 schools (besides 531 technical 
schools) with over 4,500,000 scholars. Inclusive of Mis- 
sion Schools there are over 5,000,000, about five per cent. 


250 CHINA 


being girls. China spends nine cents per capita on schools, 
while Japan spends $1.72 and the United States $5.72. 

There are government universities at Peking, Tientsin and 
Taiyuanfu. ‘There are also four other Chinese universities 
sustained by private funds. Peking University has 250 
teachers and 3,000 students. 

At the Educational Conference in 1920, co-education was 
recommended, but as yet is very meagrely carried out. 

In connection with the return of the indemnity paid to 
America because of the Boxer Rebellion, over 700 students, 
including 46 women, have already been educated in the 
United States. 

In 1918 the China Medical Board, a branch of the 
Rockefeller Foundation, was spending $2,000,000 annually, 
maintaining nineteen hospitals, three medical schools and 
sixty-five scholarships. The Union Medical College, the 
gift of Mr. Rockefeller, and maintained by his Foundation, 
was dedicated in the summer of 1922, costing over $5,000,- 
ooo. It admits women to the study of medicine. 

The old system of administering justice was extremely 
bad. ‘The laws of China were simply the expression of the 
will of the Emperor and the code was the collection and 
orderly arrangement of his decrees, as they had accumulated 
through the centuries of rule of Emperors,—good, bad and 
indifferent. All officials, including judges, were named by 
the Emperor. All Powers claimed extra-territorial juris- 
diction over their own citizens and most of them still retain 
this privilege. “The Washington Conference, however, de- 
manded the abolishing of foreign courts ‘‘as soon as circum- 
stances will permit.” ‘The first trial by jury in a Chinese 
court was in March, 1912. 

There was no budget from 1920 to 1923. “The revenues 
in 1919 were $490,419,786, the expenses $495,762,888. A 
preliminary report issued April, 1924, stated that expendi- 
tures exceeded the amount in hand seventeen times. 

The Chinese Maritime Customs, founded by Sir Robert 
Hart, collects revenues of five per cent. on all Chinese 


feet AND FIGURES 251 


foreign trade, also a surtax of two and a half to five per 
cent. additional on certain articles of luxury. 

The public debt is $2,067,881,404, mostly held by for- 
eigners. Previous to the days of the Republic there was no 
domestic debt, for when the Emperor needed what was 
nominally the possession of his subjects, he simply took it. 

The Army at present numbers about 1,000,000 men, about 
ten per cent. of their wages being paid (when there are any 
funds) by the Chinese Government, but the soldiers are 
absolutely under the control of the Tuchuns of the various 
provinces, who raise the balance of pay. ‘The nearest ap- 
proach to a national army was under the command of General 
Wu Pei-fu, commanding the Chihli forces. 

The Navy is negligible, having altogether vessels aggre- 
gating 40,000 tons and a Navy personnel of 8,000. 

Agriculture is intensive. Holdings as a rule are small 
and primitive tools and mediaeval irrigating methods are 
common. ‘The Chinese are gardeners rather than farmers. 
Next to the United States and India, China produces the 
most cotton among the nations. ‘Tea is grown on 520,470 
acres and is one of the great staples. Fully twenty-seven 
per cent. of the raw silk of the world comes from China, 
valued at $139,624,755 annually. New industries are de- 
veloping in cotton, wool and flour mills, and some large 
iron works are operated. China has large iron and coal 
deposits. 3 

Imports (1921) were £160,633,627; exports, £130,976,- 
ooo. Of the trade Japan has twenty-eight per cent.; Great 
Britain, eighteen and a half per cent., and the United States, 
sixteen per cent. 

During 1923, 182,722 vessels entered Chinese ports. 

The first railroad in China was built in 1876, but the 
opposition of the natives caused it to be discontinued for 
years. ‘There are now 7,503 miles of railroad in operation 
and construction. While China has such a scant railway 
mileage to serve 320,000,000 people, as against 300,000 
miles in the United States to serve 100,000,000 people, it 


252 CHINA 


should be remembered that China has a canal system of 
over 25,000 miles. The Grand Canal from Tientsin to 
Hangchow alone is 850 miles long. ‘These canals are the 
principal avenues of intercommunication, as the highways 
are few and poor. 

By action of the Washington Conference all foreign post 
offices (except those in foreign owned or leased territory) 
were withdrawn January I, 1923. 

The currency is on the silver basis. “The tael is the 
standard of value, weighing an ounce of silver and averages 
about 78 cents. It is, however, likely to be withdrawn, and 
the Chinese dollar substituted. “There are ten varieties of 
dollars, worth about sixty cents, in circulation. An effort 
is being made to standardise the money of China. The Bank 
of China has 120 branches and a capital of $60,000,000, and 
there are many other corporate banks. 

Manchuria has 363,710 square miles with a population 
of 20,000,000, and is controlled and governed by Japan. 
Tibet has an area of 463,000 square miles, and a population 
of 2,000,000 people. It has declared its autonomy, prac- 
tically seceding from China, with the support and largely 
the domination of Great Britain. Mongolia has 1,367,600 
square miles, largely desert, with a population of 2,600,000 
inhabitants, mostly nomads. 


RECENT BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


New Lanterns in Old China, I. Ingles. ’23, Revell. 

Chinese Lanterns, G. Seton. ’24, Dodd. — 

China Awakened, M. T. Z. Tyau. ’22, Macmillan. 

Swinging Lanterns, E. C. Enders. ’23, Appleton. 

Charm of the Middle Kingdom, J. R. Marsh. ’22, Little. 

American Diplomat in China, P. S. Reinsch. ’22, Double- 
day. 

China Year Book, ’22-’23, Stechert. 

On a Chinese Screen, W. S. Maugham. ’22, Doran. 

Chinese Mettle, E.G. Kemp. ’22, Doran. 

Problems of China, B. A. W. Russell. ’22, Century: 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 253 


China Yesterday and Today, E. T. Williams. ’23, N. Y. 

International Development of China, Dr. Sun Yat Sen. 
23, London. 

Chance and Change in Modern China, A. S. Roe. ’23, 
London. 

China in the Family of Nations, H. K. Hodgkin. ’23, 
London. 

China, the Mysterious and Marvellous, V. Murdock. ’20, 
Revell. 

China’s Story, W. E. Griffiths. °22, Houghton. 

Chinese as They Are, J. R. Saunders. ’21, Revell. 

China Awakened, 8. T. Tyan. ’22, Macmillan. 

China, L. E. Johnston. ’21, Macmillan. 

Glimpses of China, T. Kawata. ’21, Stechert. 

China’s Place in the Sun, 8S. H. High. ’22, Macmillan. 

China, Japan and Korea, J. O. P. Bland. ’21, Scribner. 

Foreign Relations of China, M. W. Bau. ’22, Revell. 

International Development of China, Y. Sun. ’22, Putnam. 

My Chinese Days, G. F. Alsop. ’18, Little. 

China of the Chinese, E. T. Werner. ’19, Scribner. 

Japan Versus China, F. Wood. ’21, Revell. 

Travellers Hand Book for China, C. Crow. ’21, Dodd. 

Development of China, K. G. Latourette. °17, Houghton. 

Forty-five Years in China, VT. Richard. ’16, Stokes. 

Spell of China, A. Bell. °17, Page. 


feo ot ELL LLP PLN E 
ISLANDS 


UNITED STATES ADMINISTRATION 
l may be safely said that the Philippines have been 


under the most enlightened colonial administration in 

- history. “There has been an absence of inefficiency and 

graft which has put the whole control of these Islands upon 
a high altruistic basis. 


254 PHILIPPINE ISLeanes 


The United States and the Philippines have a close rela- 
tion, calling for careful consideration. 


THEHARRISONADMINISTRATION 


Since the beginning of President Wilson’s administration 
the conditions have not, however, been so favourable. The 
removal in 1913 of Gov. Gen. W. Cameron Forbes (who 
continued the able work of his predecessors, Wm. H. Taft, 
Luke E. Wright and Henry Clay Ide), acknowledged as one 
of the greatest of our colonial administrators, and the sub- 
stitution of Gov. Gen. Francis Burton Harrison, has appar- 
ently been a marked blunder in our Philippine policy. Gov. 
Gen. Harrison was authorised to give the largest interpre- 
tation of the Jones Bill, which provided for the gradual 
assumption of Government powers by the Filipinos, with a 
view to speedy independence. 

In the pre-Harrison administration, American officials 
were at the head of most of the departments, but his policy 
was to remove every American as rapidly as possible, regard- 
less of his experience, efficiency, and length of service, and 
to substitute untrained and often untrustworthy Filipinos. 
Under the Taft and Forbes administrations, there had been 
a slow ‘‘Filipinisation” from the bottom up, but the Harri- 
son administration immediately placed the most important 
positions, based quite often on political expediency, in Fili- 
pino hands. Before 1913, the Philippines had probably the 
most efficiently conducted Government that could be found 
anywhere, not excepting that in this country, but since that 
time there has been such a complete over-turning of govern- 
ment personnel and morale, that there is little that is Ameri- 
can left, except the Governor-General and the flag. 


A SWEEPING FILIP i htA 


Every one of the departments, namely, Interior, Justice, 
Commerce, Finance, and Agriculture, is controlled by Fili- 


FILIPINO RULE 255 


pinos, with the single exception of the Department of Public 
Instruction. ‘There is also a hundred per cent. Filipino leg- 
islature, and the same being true of the provincial and 
municipal Governments, there is consequently a nearly com- 
plete Filipino executive administration, and a partial native 
control of the Judiciary. 

In July, 1920, only 582 Americans, of whom 325 were 
teachers, were in Philippine service, and 12,561 Filipinos 
held official positions. Since that time the number of Ameri- 
cans has actually decreased, and there are now scarcely a 
dozen Americans who hold positions of any real authority. 
The result has been that taxation has markedly advanced, 
efficiency woefully declined, and commerce noticeably 
reduced. 

Filipino Financing. ‘There has been a very rapid deteri- 
oration in all departments. At the time that Gov. Gen. Har- 
rison assumed control, there was a gold reserve of $52,000,000 
which was deposited in fifteen different United States 
banks, an amount which covered the entire paper currency 
of the Islands, and thus maintained paper money at par. 
But without legal warrant, this was later put into one New 
York bank to the credit of the Bank instead of to the credit 
of the United States Government. 

The Philippine National Bank had $37,037,345 of capi- 
tal, provided by the Philippine Government, and $23,771,- 
500 of public funds were also deposited. When the investi- 
gation was made of the condition of this Bank, it was found, 
according to the testimony of expert accountants who were 
called in, that it had been conducted “in violation of every 
principle that prudence, intelligence, and even honesty could 
dictate.” In these transactions, it has involved all of the 
capital and two-thirds of the deposits of the Government, 
amounting to over $52,000,000. 

In Gov. Gen. Wood’s official report of 1922, issued Sep- 
tember 1, 1923, he states that $37,500,000 of this was a total 
loss. Besides, the Bank was being operated at an annual 
deficit of $300,000. Under all the rules of sound banking, 


256 PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 


he asserts, the institution should have been closed, but he 
has continued it with the hope of saving something out of © 
the wreckage of the bad investments in which the Bank 
indulged. 

In addition to this, there were heavy losses in the Govern- 
ment operation of railroads, together with Government in- 
vestments in sugar, oil, cement, tobacco, and other products, 
so that the Islands were brought to the very verge of insolv- 
ency. ‘To avoid such a disaster, and in order to maintain 
the currency system which had depreciated to a sixteen per 
cent. discount, General Wood found it necessary in 1922 to 
increase the bonded debt of the Islands up to the legal limit. 
All this, according to General Wood, has had a most depres- 
sing effect on insular credit as well as upon business in gen- 
eral, which will be felt for years to come. ‘The total bonded 
indebtedness January I, 1923 was $71,960,000. 

General Wood made a report of the condition of the 
Philippine National Bank to the Philippine Legislature in 
February, 1923. The leaders of both houses entirely sup- 
pressed it, and only one Filipino newspaper had courage 
enough to print it. ‘The other organs, under the control 
of the Filipino leaders, denounced the publication as a crime, 
because of General Wood’s interference with the rights of 
the heads of departments of the Government in the control 
of the political and economic life of the country. 

The Filipinos are not naturally business men, as is evi- 
dent from the fact that eighty-five per cent. of the local trade 
is carried on by the Chinese, and the wholesale and foreign 
business is in the hands of Americans and the British. Rep- 
resentative American business men are outspoken in their 
charges that there have been wholesale graft, looting of pub- 
lic funds and the using of government materials for private 
purposes. No building operation can be carried through 
without resorting to bribery. Even in the earlier days, 
American business men did not have the protection from 
the U. S. Government that Englishmen have from Great 
Britain, and now conditions are even worse. ‘The result 


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is that British investments in the Philippines are nearly 
double those of Americans, and every other nation, except 
America, is reaping the results of the American sacrifice of 
soldiers’ lives and the expenditure of American treasure. 

Public Schools. ‘he Public School system has suffered 
in equal proportion. American teachers have been largely 
removed to make way for Filipinos. There are now 11,000 
Filipino teachers, and less than 300 American, with such a 
consequent demoralisation that even in the last years of 
the Harrison régime an effort was made to secure additional 
American teachers. ‘To make matters worse, Spanish was 
put on an equality with English in the curricula. 

Bureau of Science. The Bureau of Science, which covers 
botany, geology, zoology, forestry, and medicine, which once 
was unsurpassed in scope and efficiency, has become a farce. 
There are left in charge only two foreigners, an American 
and an Austrian, from a large staff which formerly was 
almost wholly American. As a result, dust, neglect and 
disorder have prevailed, and the Bureau of Science, which 
had played such a large part in the scientific knowledge and 
development of the Philippines, has become almost useless. 

Health Conditions. ‘The health conditions make even 
a worse showing. Under the Forbes administration, the 
deaths from smallpox had been reduced from 10,000 a year 
in 1903 to less than 1,000 in 1912, which was the last year 
of his administration. In 1919 under the Harrison admin- 
istration there were 45,000 deaths from smallpox. While 
cholera had been entirely stamped out in 1912, without a 
single case having developed during that year, there were 
18,000 cases in 1919. 

There is now only one American left in the College of 
Medicine in connection with the University, and but three 
are left in the entire Health Service, the once splendid staff 
having been eliminated. 

The Constabulary at its maximum had 375 American 
officers, but now only 20 remain. ‘This has seriously low- 
ered the standard of discipline and morale. 


258 PHILIPPINE JS faa 


The Administration of Justice is practically paralysed. 
In 1912 the Courts were up to their dockets. In 1920 there 
were 23,836 cases pending. 


THE QUESTION OF WITHDRAWAL 


It is perfectly clear to close observers that the withdrawal 
of the United States would result in immediate chaos and 
civil war, and would, to quote the Wood-Forbes report, 
“leave the Islands a prey to any powerful nation coveting 
their rich soil and potential commercial advantages.” 

It would be suicidal to our position as a world-power to 
abandon the Philippines with their tremendous strategic 
value. Our Asiatic commerce would be immensely crip- 
pled, we would be put on the defensive and our world 
supremacy would be sacrificed. At present the Philippines 
are not a financial burden on the American people, as the 
American tax-payer does not pay a single penny for our 
control of the Philippines, assuming that the navy and army 
forces which are stationed there would be employed else- 
where. 

The people do not want a severance of relation, feeling 
their need of the protection and the financial backing of 
the United States. They want all of the power and 
profit without assuming any of the risks. Already they have 
practically the same control over their Government that 
Canada and Australia have over theirs. The fact is, as has 
been indicated, that they have been given too much self-gov- 
ernment for their own good. ‘To have the United States 
entirely withdraw now would make them helpless against 
the encroachment of foreign military and naval powers. 
Furthermore, national defences must be provided and there 
must be a unifying of races and languages in order to give 
any entity or unity to the Islands. Education, especially 
higher education, must be developed on a much larger scale 
than is true at present. 

Japan’s Attitude. It would do the Filipinos little good 


feet S ALTITUDE 259 


to have the United States withdraw, for it is certain that in 
a very short time the Islands would be taken over by a less 
friendly and philanthropic Power, probably Japan, by which 
the Islands have long been coveted. 

One need only consider the fact of Japan’s position and 
preparedness in the Western Pacific to realise what a pigmy 
antagonist the Philippines would be if the United States 
withdrew. During twenty-five years Japan has acquired For- 
mosa, Korea, Manchuria, Vladivostok, southern Sakhalin 
and the Marshall, Caroline, and Mariana Islands, and 
dominates Mongolia and Shantung. It has a standing army 
of 500,000 men, and reserves of 2,500,000 men. Half of 
her budget is for army and navy expenditure. 

Even as it is, the United States is in a very precarious 
condition to defend the Philippines in case of war. ‘The 
Philippines, unfortunately, are not as well protected as is 
Hawaii. ‘The guns on the fortified Corregidor at the en- 
trance to Manila Bay command only a small range, and 
could not cope with the powerful long range guns of 
Japan’s capital ships. To wage a successful naval conflict 
with Japan in the Western Pacific, the United States would 
need a navy twice its present size. The logic of the situa- 
tion is that Japan, if she continues to cherish her dream for 
Pan-Asian control, needs the Philippines in order to give 
her a free hand in Southern Asia. If Guam, Samoa, and the 
Philippines were in Japan’s hands, she would have unchal- 
lenged entry into all the waters of southern Asia, and make 
it possible for her to threaten the security of India, the 
Dutch East Indies, and even of Australia. 

Undeveloped Resources. It would also be a misfortune 
at this stage to turn over the full Filipino control of the 
Islands, because their resources have only begun to be devel- 
oped. “There are great stores of copper, iron, petroleum, 
coal and gold, which are almost untouched; and the incom- 
parable hard-wood forests are still awaiting the axe. While 
the Filipinos are good fishermen, deep-sea fishing is almost 
unknown. Only ten per cent. of the total area of the Islands 


260 PHILIPPINE TSGaaeee 


is at present tilled. If the American control which was in 
evidence in the pre-Harrison Administration had continued, 
the development of their resources would have been much 
more rapid. If the resources were properly developed, the 
Islands could support 50,000,000 people. Japan, for in- 
stance, which is about the same size, and limited to one 
crop a year, supports nearly 60,000,000 people. ‘The Di- 
rector of Forestry in the Philippines says that the Islands 
could supply all the rubber, camphor, gums, resin, hard- 
wood, etc., that the United States could possibly need. 


GENER AD Wawa 


General Wood, since his arrival in the Philippines and 
his study of conditions there, has been trying to correct some 
of the very evident effects of mismanagement, and has thereby 
aroused the antagonism of the Filipino political leaders. 
The fact that he reinstated a Secret Service Agent, an Ameri- 
_can (who had been assigned by the United States Secret 
Service to act with the Manila police in suppressing gam- 
bling, and who was dismissed by the Filipino Mayor of 
Manila on a false charge of bribery), caused the members 
of the Cabinet and of the Council of State, all of whom 
are Filipinos but one, to resign on July 17, 1923. ‘The 
objection of the Filipino politicians to the reinstatement of 
this American official was in reality merely an excuse to 
give expression to the resentment against General Wood. 

Quezon, the President of the Senate and leader of the 
Nationalist party; Osmefia, the Speaker of the House, and 
Roxas, one of the parliamentary leaders, in 1925 visited 
the United States on a parliamentary mission. “They spent 
money freely, averaging $112.50 a day each while in Wash- 
ington, besides such items as $900 in one month for clothes 
and $560 for a single dinner. ‘This was taken out of the 
$500,000 voted annually by the Legislature to promote in- 
dependence. ‘They charged Governor General Wood with 
high-handed and autocratic interference. ‘They did their 


GENERAL WOOD 261 


best to promote the passage of the Fairfield Bill which had 
been presented to the House advocating immediate inde- 
pendence. ‘They received no encouragement from Presi- 
dent Coolidge and Congress and returned discomfited. 
General Aguinaldo, most of the Filipino press and the grow- 
ing Democratic party are opposed to them and to their 
views. They are not inclined to accept the words of 
Quezon, “Better a government like hell by Filipinos than 
one like heaven by a foreign power.” 

In the Wood-Forbes report on the Philippines it is recom- 
mended that “in case of failure to secure the necessary cor- 
rective action by the Philippine Legislature, we recommend 
that Congress declare null and void legislation which has 
been enacted diminishing, limiting or dividing the authority 
granted the Governor-General under the Jones Bill. We 
recommend that under no circumstances should the Ameri- 
can Government permit to be established in the Philippine 
Islands a situation, which would leave the United States in 
a position of responsibility without authority.” Certainly 
these are wise words and the situation is in strong hands. 

On November 15, 1923 the Manila Chamber of Commerce 
sent a petition to Congress to revoke the Jones Act, and to 
institute an “enabling act establishing the Islands as an 
organic territory of the United States.” ‘This is based on 
the ground that the Filipino leaders are in open opposition 
to the sovereignty of the United States and are using the 
Legislature in seeking to accomplish this end, to the detri- 
ment of governmental and business interests. 

Dr. Dean C. Worcester, the author of “The Philippines, 
Past and Present,” who is regarded as the best authority 
on the subject, having spent many years in Government 
activities, says, ‘“Philippine independence is not a present pos- 
sibility, nor will it be possible for at least two generations.” 


THE PEOPLE 


The people belong to the Malay race, but are distinct in 
genealogy, language and characteristics. ‘There are forty- 


262 PHILIPPINEAS Tae 


three tribes and eighty-seven different dialects. The ability 
to read and write English or Spanish gives every Filipino 
twenty-three years of age the right to vote, but even with a 
liberal interpretation of this rule, only about 600,000 males 
of voting age care to exercise the right. 

The three main groups that figure politically are the 
Visayans, who compose forty per cent. of the population, 
among whom Sefior Osmena, the Speaker of the House, is 
a conspicuous representative; the Tagalogs, with twenty per 
cent. of the population, among whom Sefior Manuel Quezon, 
the President of the Senate, is leader; and the Ilocanos, also 
forming twenty per cent., who are among the most hopeful 
and reliable of all the population. ‘The Tagalogs are the 
most aggressive and the best educated, but the least trust- 
worthy. While the politicians of these three divisions for 
political reasons are apparently working in harmony for 
independence, there is basically the utmost antagonism and 
distrust of one another. 

Most of the Filipino men of the better class wear Euro- 
pean clothes, those of lesser degree wearing pantaloons and 
a coat of cotton cloth. 

Women of the higher social standing wear dresses with 
large puffed sleeves made from the pina cloth, which is 
woven from the fibre of the pineapple leaf, making a rather 
wiry but soft and delicate transparent material. “They also 
wear dresses made from the jusi, a native fabric beautifully 
embroidered. The women as a whole can scarcely be called 
beautiful because of their light-brown skins and high cheek 
bones, but many of them are delicately formed, have long 
hair and small feet, and show real refinement. , 

The houses as a rule are only from one to three stories 
high owing to the frequency of earthquakes, although there 
are some modern steel framed buildings, five or more stories 
high. 

All the native languages have a Malay origin, but there 
are many dialects and these are so distinct, that people of 


THE PEOPLE 263 


one island and even of one province cannot be understood 
by their adjoining neighbours. Spanish was the cultured 
language before the American occupation, some of the higher 
class Filipinos being able to speak Spanish only, but now 
English is becoming current, and until recently was gen- 
erally taught in the schools. 

Among the native population are twenty-seven non- 
Christian types. Of this number 25,000 are Negritos, a 
black dwarf race now rapidly becoming extinct, living in 
the mountainous districts, who are believed to be the 
aborigines of the Islands. ‘Their ideas of agriculture are 
primitive and they live mostly by hunting and fishing. ‘They 
show a fondness for music, having their own primitive 
bamboo flutes and harps. Their religion is simple as they 
worship only Nature, the moon being their principal deity. 
The Igorotes, or Head-Hunters, conquered them and in 
turn were overcome by Malay invaders, now known as Fili- 
pinos. 

The Igorotes have an interesting burial custom of “smok- 
ing their dead,’ much as we would a ham, except that it is 
carried to further lengths. When the process is finished, 
the corpse looks not unlike an Egyptian mummy. It is then 
placed in a sitting posture in the mountain burial caves. 
Some head-hunting is still occasionally carried on by the 
Igorotes in the mountain fastnesses. 

There are 300,000 Moros, mostly in the southern 
Mindanao and Sulu groups of islands, who are still quite 
savage and often treacherous, but they represent a high 
grade of intelligence. Dr. Dean C. Worcester, the eminent 
Philippine authority and former chief of the Department 
of the Interior, speaks of them as having reached the highest 
state of civilisation that non-Christian Malays have ever 
attained unaided. While nominally they are Mohamme- 
dans, they do not follow the rule of praying five times a 
day facing Mecca, nor observe the Ramadan, the month 
of fasting which is required of Mohammedans. One thing 
that makes the Moro a dangerous fighter in war is his belief 


264 PHILIPPINE JS Layee 


that if he kills a Christian he is assured of attaining Para- 
dise. While the United States has finally won their con- 
fidence, the Filipinos, if they assumed government control, 
could never keep them under subjection, as they are sworn 
to resist the Filipino rule to the death, a fact which cham- 
pions of complete Philippine independence would do well 
to remember. In October, 1923, there was a Moro revolt, 
and fifteen Filipino constables were killed, and continued 
bloody strife has followed. 

The modern Filipinos are so afraid of having these pagan 
and undeveloped tribes seem to represent them that they 
have withdrawn all photographs of them from sale. Even 
students and historians are not permitted to see the fine 
collection which is now in the Department of the Interior. 

There is, of course, much mixed blood. Some of the 
ablest politicians are mixtures of Spanish and Chinese, 
mingled with a Malay strain. ‘The political agitators are 
largely of mixed pedigree and form a small oligarchy bent 
on self-aggrandisement and the amassing of wealth. 

There is much leprosy in the Islands. General Wood 
has been given authority to raise a million dollars in the 
United States for the leper colony at Culion where 5,000 
lepers are being cared for. 

Filipino Characteristics. Many of the characteristics of 
the Filipino people are very admirable, such as boundless 
hospitality, natural kindliness, personal cleanliness, with a 
high degree of patriotism and a desire for education. Woman 
is man’s full social equal. The Filipino is teachable and 
precocious, although apt to be superficial. He is quite 
artistic and very musical, every village having its own 
band. In Manila, grand opera is the fashion, given by Fili- 
pino artists (although many of these are predominantly 
Spanish), and Filipino composers have actually produced 
creditable operas. The Manila Constabulary Band took — 
the second prize (the first going to Sousa) at the St. Louis 
World’s Fair, competing with contestants from all over the 
United States and from other nations. ‘The Filipinos are 


MANILA 265 


so passionately fond of music that one hears the sound of it 
from every direction—pianos, violins, mandolins, guitars, 
all being skilfully played, and pianolas and victrolas are 
everywhere in evidence. 


MANILA: 
“The Venice of the Orient” 


The approach to Manila is through Manila Bay, the 
scene of Admiral Dewey’s history-making victory. It has 
an area of 770 square miles and a circumference of 120 
miles, and it is undoubtedly the finest harbour in the Far East. 
There is a breakwater, behind which ships can seek protec- 
tion in stormy weather. 

Manila (the name means “shrubbery’”’) is situated on 
both banks of the Pasig River, which flows into Manila Bay, 
the river being spanned by a series of bridges. ‘There are 
also lesser bridges crossing a large number of canals con- 
nected with the river. 

As the Islands are in the seismic belt, they have suffered 
many invasions by earthquakes, the severest being in 1645, 
1800 and 1863. 

Three stages of civilisation are represented, one being 
Malay, in the thatched houses; another, the Spanish type, 
left over from the Spanish occupancy, mostly centred in 
the Walled City; and the third, the American type, evident 
in the wide streets and up-to-date buildings. 

As late as 1904, Manila had no drainage system and a 
heavy rain would flood the streets with filthy water so as 
to make boats necessary. It is needless to say that the yel- 
low fever and cholera had bountiful harvests. A short horse 
car line was the only means of rapid transit and a 120 mile 
run from Manila to the northwest coast the only railway. 
There was little river traffic, as the mouth of the Pasig River 
was choked with sand. ‘The churches were the only build- | 
ings of consequence. 

Now there, are all the conveniences and modern improve- 
ments of any well conducted American city. A pure water 


266 PHILIPPINE Is hanes 


supply furnishes the city with 22,000,000 gallons a day. 
A complete sewer system which cost over $2,000,000 keeps 
the city in a sanitary condition. ‘There are 150 miles of 
clean macadamized streets. There are sixty-one open 
squares and parks, some having familiar names like McKin- 
ley Plaza and Harrison Park, as breathing places for the 
populace. ‘The Luneta and the Hehan Botanical Gardens 
are conspicuous examples. 

Much land has been reclaimed from the sea, making de- 
sirable locations for public buildings, including the great 
up-to-date hotel. A modern fire department, splendid, well- 
kept markets, scientific hospitals, an organised police force 
maintaining law and order,—are all signal evidences of 
progress since the American régime began. 


SIGHTSEEING 


The Intermuros or Walled City is the most character- 
istic phase of Manila antiquity, the walls dating back to 
1590. ‘These are two and a half miles in extent and from 
twenty to thirty feet high. Until 1852 they had moats and 
drawbridges, which were closed at 11 P.M. ‘The moats 
have been filled up, the space now being given over to fine ~ 
drives and athletic quarters. Five of the old gates remain, 
only three of which are well preserved. 

Fort Santiago is the site of the old native fortress, which 
was already built when the Spaniards came in 1570, and is 
now the Headquarters of the American Army. The Span- 
iards used it as a prison. On August 31, 1896, there were 
sixty Filipinos imprisoned in a single dungeon, who had 
been arrested on suspicion of being insurrectionists, and in 
the morning all but four were dead from suffocation,—a 
story suggesting a modern Black Hole of Calcutta. 

The Plaza McKinley is a small garden encircled by some 
of the chief public buildings of Manila. Here is a statue 
of King Charles IV of Spain, erected in honour of the intro- 
duction of vaccination, which occurred during his reign. 


BeGHTSEEING 267 


The City Hall was built in 1878, taking the place of 
the one destroyed by the earthquake of 1863, and was 
designed by Sefior Roxas, a famous Filipino architect. On 
the main landing is the statue of Elcano, who after the 
death of Magellan in 1521, brought the expedition back to 
Spain, being the first leader who fully circumnavigated the 
globe. In the Marble Hall just beyond, the Philippine 
Assembly holds its sessions. 

The University of Santo Thomas dates back to 1611 
and was established and is still controlled by the Dominican 
Order. It covers the usual University curricula, and has 
a Museum of Natural History. The University of 
Manila has thirty-one buildings and a student enrollment 
of 3,500. 

The Cathedral of The Immaculate Conception faces 
the Plaza McKinley. It is the chief church of Manila, 
founded in 1581. ‘The present building was constructed 
after the earthquake of 1863, and is Byzantine in its archi- 
tecture with a fine dome that is conspicuous even to ap- 
proaching ships. It suggests St. Mark’s in Venice, with a 
succession of fine chapels on both sides of the nave, which is 
of imposing proportions, with many pillars with gilded 
capitals and a dome with interior frescoes. At the Plaza 
McKinley are centred many churches so that, as they say in 
Manila, “one can stand and throw stones from one spot 
and hit seven churches.”’ Most of them are little used, 
except on gala occasions. 

The Aquarium has twenty-seven exhibition tanks includ- 
ing large ones for sharks and crocodiles, together with the 
multi-coloured fish that are found in the adjacent tropical 
waters. 

The Paco Cemetery consists of two concentric circular 
walls eight feet thick, containing 1782 niches for burial 
caskets, with 500 others in a separate court for children. 
In the outer ring, to the left of the main entrance, is the 
niche where José Rizal after his execution was interred. A 
wooden cross with his initials reversed (so as to avoid undue 


2068 PHILIPPINE 1p 


attention) still remains. ‘These niches, after the fashion 
of the Colon Cemetery at Havana, are rented for five years, 
and if the rental is not renewed, the remains are removed 
and buried elsewhere. 

Luneta Park is the oval shaped Park which contains the 
Band Stand where the famous Constabulary Band plays 
several evenings a week. Here the better class of people, 
both foreigners and Filipinos, come to spend the evening, 
enjoying the cool sea breezes and listening to the music. 
This formerly was the Execution Ground under the old 
Spanish rule. Here is a large monument marking the place 
where Dr. José Rizal was shot. 

Dr. José Rizal. No sketch of the Philippines would be 
complete without a mention of this celebrated patriot and 
brilliant author. He was of a pure Tagalog family and 
showed remarkable gifts from his youth, writing poems at 
the age of five. He was educated in Manila and Madrid, 
receiving at the University in the latter city the degree of 
Ph.D. 

While at Brussels he wrote his famous novel, “Noli me 
tangere’ (Touch me not), in which he unveiled all the 
evils of the Spanish Government in the Philippines. ‘This 
made him so unpopular with the Spanish authorities that he 
was compelled to live in Europe, where he also wrote “El - 
Filibusterismo.” In 1892 he was given assurance of safety 
in Manila, but when he returned he was immediately exiled 
to Mindanao for four years. On suspicion of being an insti- 
gator of a dangerous rebellion, he was brought to Manila 
and suffered a long imprisonment. In spite of his brilliant de- 
fence and protestations of innocence at his long delayed trial, 
he was shot December 30, 1896. He is today the outstand- 
ing hero of the whole Filipino people, and the American 
Government in the Philippines has made the day of his exe- 
cution a public holiday. 

Bilibid Prison covers altogether twenty acres and its 
buildings can house 3,000 prisoners, men and women, 
although usually the number is less. ‘The buildings date 


SWEET DREANS| 


CIGARETTES 
HERE: 





MANILA CITIZENESS 


STREET SCENE IN MANILA 





SIGHTSEEING 269 


from the Spanish occupancy. It is a remarkable sight for 
the tourist who visits this institution at 4:30 P. M. any 
day, to see the marching and elaborate calisthenics of the 
criminals, and the playing of various selections and patriotic 
American songs by the fine band of about fifty instruments, 
the members of which, though prisoners, seem proudly con- 
scious of the dignity of their position. At the close of this 
programme, the flag is saluted and the prisoners have their 
supper served at the public canteens. ‘The inmates are 
allowed to receive visitors and to converse freely with one 
another. “The Prison has extensive shops, making silver- 
ware, carriages and furniture, and carries on an extensive 
laundry which does work for outside citizens as well as 
supplying prison needs. ‘The Bilibid “graduates” are said 
to be in demand because of their honesty and mechanical 
skill. 

Escolta Street has many American and European stores 
and Rosario Street is lined with busy Chinese shops. ‘There 
are few characteristic articles for sale except Panama hats 
and some native embroidery. ‘The residential quarters are 
in the north and the south suburban districts. 

The Philippine carnival, held in the Wallace Field dur- 
ing one week in February, is the greatest of Philippine cele- 
brations. The whole city wears festival garb and masks 
and dominoes are everywhere seen in the streets. “There are 
many amusement features, elaborate parades and fashion- 
able balls, and also an exhibit of Philippine products, sug- 
gesting an American county fair. i 

American sports such as baseball, boxing, horse racing, 
polo, tennis, golf, are among the amusements. Cockfighting 
has been such a consuming passion that Americans have not 
found it possible to stop it, though they have tried to reduce 
attendance by making other sports more popular. ‘There 
are several cock-pits, which are large roofed sheds, holding 
upwards of 5,000 people—with heavy betting accompanying 
the actual bouts of the cocks. ‘The fighting cocks are armed 
with four inch artificial spurs, so that a cock battle usually 


270 PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 


results in a casualty in a very few minutes. Sometimes 
the poorer people stake the wages of several days om their 
favourite birds. 

The Churches and Schools. In less than twenty-five 
years a great advance has been made by the Protestant 
Churches, there being now nearly 200 American missiona- 
ries and workers and as many ordained Filipino ministers, to- 
gether with 1600 lay evangelists and Bible women, and a 
membership of over 100,000. 

These Protestant denominations work in the utmost har- 
mony and are carrying on united activities in the manage- 
ment and support of thirteen hospitals, twelve missionary 
schools, two orphanages and a Union Theological Seminary. 
They have invested about two million dollars in buildings 
and equipments in connection with educational work. ‘The 
Bible, or portions of it, has been translated into twenty dia- 
lects for the people in the various islands. 

The Roman Catholic Church is the dominant Church, 
having been the only one when the Americans came. This 
Church has a Cathedral and about forty churches in Manila, 
with their own hospitals and orphan asylums and homes for 
the aged. 


PRACTICAL HINTS 
The Manila Hotel, which is run by the American Goy- 


ernment, is near the Luneta, and has 150 rooms and 120 
baths, being equipped with a roof garden, grill room, and a 
ball room, where music is furnished by a Filipino orchestra. 

The Pasig River. An interesting trip is sometimes ar- 
ranged by boat going up the Pasig River, giving an exhibit 
of native life in the interior. ‘The river is bordered by primi- 
tive huts with scantily clad natives and busy laundrymen, 
besides native river craft,—all of which is very entertaining, 
but it hardly confirms the theory that the natives are ready 
for self-government. Such views of the interior can, how- 
ever, be seen to better advantage by an auto trip. 


PRACTICAL HINTS © 271 


Money. ‘The standard of money is the peso, equal to 
fifty cents American. ‘The coins are peso, one-half peso, 
a peseta, one-half peseta, five centavo (2%4 cents), and one 
centavo (14 cent). American money is also current. 

Customs. ‘The only article on which travellers are ex- 
pected to pay duty is tobacco, although fifty cigars and five 
hundred cigarettes are allowed free. Liquor and firearms 
are forbidden. Duty on articles bought in the Islands to 
be shipped or mailed to the United States can be paid in 
advance at the Custom House. 

Climate. The highest temperature on record is 103.5° F., 
although 100° F. is rare, but the nights are comfortable and 
the climate uniform throughout the year. ‘The hottest 
month is May. Manila’s annual rainfall is 75.46 inches. 


Mer eeE MENTARY FACTS AND 
FIGURES 


The Philippines were ceded to the United States by the 
treaty with Spain, April 11, 1899, and although Spain was 
completely defeated, the United States Government paid her 
$20,000,000 for relinquishing all claim to the Philippine 
Islands, Guam and Porto Rico. The Governor General is 
General Leonard Wood, who was appointed February, 1921, 
and represents the sovereign power of the United States. 
He has six executive departments under his direction, all of 
whom, except that of Education, are now headed by native 
Filipinos. ‘The legislative body has a Senate of twenty-four 
members and a House of ninety-three representatives, elected 
by popular vote, all Filipinos. 

The Council of State, an extra-legal body appointed by 
former Governor General Harrison at the request of the 
Filipino leaders, unites the executive and legislative branches, 
and this includes the Governor General, the President of 
the Senate, the Speaker of the House, and the Secretaries of 
Departments. The Archipelago is divided into forty-seven 
Provinces, each with a provincial Governor. 


272 PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 


There are altogether 3,144 islands, of which 1,095 are 
habitable. Eleven of the largest have a total of 106,823 
square miles, all others having only 8,203,—the largest, 
Luzon, having 40,814 square miles, and Mindanao, 36,906 
square miles. ‘The total population (1918) was 10,314,310. 
Manila has a population of 285,306, of whom 259,437 are 
Filipinos, 17,760 are Chinese, and 2,916 are Americans. 

There is a Supreme Court with a Filipino as Chief Jus- 
tice and eight associates, of whom three are Filipinos. ‘There 
are also Judiciary Districts and Municipal Courts. 

The Philippine constabulary has 5,902 enlisted men and 
382 officers. ‘There are 13,000 troops of the United States 
Army, mostly Filipinos, and 8,700 Philippine scouts. “There 
is a militia which consists of all able-bodied natives from 
eighteen to forty-five years of age. 

The religion is Roman Catholic, but there is an independ- 
ent Filipino Church, patterned after the Roman Catholic, 
founded by Aglipay, a sort of Filipino Luther, with 1,361,- 
740 members. Protestant Churches have a membership of 
123,362. ‘There are many Mohammedans in Mindanao and 
Sulu, and altogether about 300,000 pagans. 

Education is free, secular and co-educational. In 1921, 
1,128,997 pupils were enrolled, and $10,850,000 was ex- 
pended. Private schools register 28,838 pupils, and the 
State supports a University, which in 1924 had 5,993 stu- 
dents. The Islands have twenty-eight newspapers in Eng- 
lish, twelve in English and Spanish, twenty-seven in Spanish, 
and thirty-one in native dialects. 

‘The revenues in 1923 were $33,407,415, and expenditures, 
$34,056,878. The principal products are hemp, cocoanuts, 
sugar, tobacco, corn and Manila hats. ‘There are 40,000 
square miles of valuable forests, mostly virgin, and as much 
more in grass lands. Only 10 per cent. or about 11,000 
square miles is under cultivation, of which 38 per cent. is in 
rice, 12 per cent. in corn, 5.5 per cent. in sugar cane and 2.2 
per cent. in tobacco. ‘The Islands are rich in minerals. Im- 


ports in 1924 were $95,376,513, and exports, $129,554,404. 


FACTS AND FIGURES 273 


1,016 vessels, mostly ocean liners on their way to the Far 
East, entered the harbour. There are 881 miles of railroad. 
When the United States took possession, there was one single 
narrow-gauge railroad of 120 miles. 

When the Hon. W. Cameron Forbes, afterwards Gover- 
nor General, came to the Philippines in 1904 as Secretary 
of Commerce and Police, he found only 350 miles all told 
of indifferent highways. Now there are over 6,000 miles. 
Among the Filipinos he was called “the Roadman,” as a 
term of honour. / 

The Philippine Islands have a larger area than England, 
Scotland and Ireland combined. ‘The distance from the 
northern tip of Luzon to the southern-most point of the 
Sulu Group is a distance equal to that from Canada to the 
Gulf of Mexico. ‘The population is chiefly composed of 
Malays, of whom 91.5 per cent. are Christians, and 8.5 
per cent. Moros and pagans. ‘The Filipinos are the only 
Christian Malay race in Asia. 

The Islands are directly in the path of all trade routes to 
the Far East, within sixteen hours from Hong-Kong by a 
fast torpedo boat destroyer, and within fifty hours from Singa- 
pore and Nagasaki. ‘They are centred within an isosceles 
triangle six hundred miles wide, the other two sides being 
twelve hundred miles long. Luzon is the largest Island and 
is about the size of the State of Ohio, the next in size being 
approximately as large as Indiana. 

The American Government purchased the extensive lands 
formerly owned by the Church Friars, and divided them up 
for purchase and leasing by the people, making loans to the 
small farmers and co-operating in the planting of sugar cane, 
hemp, rice and other products. American capitalists have 
also been encouraged to make investments. ‘The tariff of 
1909 gave special favourable concessions to Philippine im- 
ports. 

Abaca, or manila hemp, forms nearly forty-five per cent. 
of all exports. The fibre is taken from the covering of the 


2744 PHILIPPINE lS 


stalk of the plant and made into cordage, which seems almost 
impervious to wet weather. It is exceptionally strong and 
is used in the manufacture of ropes all over the world. The 
plant somewhat resembles that of the banana except that its 
stalk is smaller and its leaves narrower. It is gathered every 
four or five months, and an acre produces one half ton of dry 
fibre annually, worth over one hundred dollars, more than 
half of this amount being clear profit. 

There are over fifty million cocoanut trees in the Philip- 
pines, the nuts being used by the natives as food and drink 
and the wood and leaves as house building material. Copra 
is the meat of the cocoanut which is dried in the sun or by 
fire, and is widely used in this country for manufacturing 
purposes. 

Sugar cane grows luxuriantly, there being large factories 
for the manufacture of sugar, and rice is widely cultivated. 
Agriculture is the chief industry of the Islands and abaca, 
copra, sugar, tobacco and rice (in the order named), consti- 
tute 95 per cent. of all exports. 

Manufacturing plants have been established along various 
lines in cocoanut oil, sugar and cement, and a large quan- 
tity of furniture is made from palms, bamboo and rattan. 

There are sixteen hundred species of fish and twenty-five 
hundred species of trees, about five hundred being hard 
wood. ‘The lack of transportation, however, makes it diffi- 
cult to market the lumber which will eventually become 
available. 

The “lady of the night,” is a beautiful flower which 
opens after nightfall and has a choice and distinctive fra- 
grance. ‘The flowers of the ilang-ilang make a particularly 
fine perfume. Richly scented flowers like the ghantaca, 
jasmine and tube roses, are everywhere abundant. Among 
fruits, mangoes and mangosteens (the latter being called 
“King’s fruit”) bananas, pineapples, oranges, and others 
are raised in abundance. 

The Islands are potentially rich in widely distributed 
economic minerals, although the deposits are as yet largely 


Pee lOGRAPHY Fg es 


undeveloped, the greatest drawback being the difficulty in 
securing adequate capital. “There are large coal beds, both 
lignite, and semi-anthracite. 

With the exception of the water buffalo, which is almost 
indispensable for agricultural work, domestic animals are 
few and of inferior quality. Pigs and goats are numerous 
but sheep are scarce. Cattle of Australian and Indian origin 
are raised chiefly for their beef, horns and hides. Some 
American horses have been introduced in an effort to im- 
prove the native breed. 


fee BIBLIOGRAPHY 


The Isles of Fear, Katherine Mayo. ’25, Harcourt. 

Independence for the Philippines, J. E. Johnsen. ’24, 
H. W. Wilson. 

Brief History of the Philippines, L. H. Fernandez. ’19, 
Ginn. 

Self Government in the Philippines, M. M. Kalaw. ’19, 
Century. 

The Head Hunters, B. L. Kershner. ’21, Powell. 

Outlook for the Philippines, C. E. Russell. ’22, Century. 

Philippines, Past and Present, D. C. Worcester. ’21, Mac- 
millan. 

Corner Stone of Philippine Independence, F. B. Harrison. 
22, Century. 

Former Philippines Through Foreign Eyes, A. Craig. ’17, 
Appleton. 

Philippines, C. B. Elliott. ’17, Bobbs. 

Spell of the Hawaiian Islands and the Philippines, 1. Ander- 
son. ’16, Page. 

America and the Philippines, ’14, Doubleday. 

Recollections of Full Years, W. H. Taft. 714, Dodd. 

Americans in the Philippines, J. A, LeRoy. ’14, Houghton. 


JAVA 


“The Gem of the Indian Ocean” 


AVA is approximately the size of the State of New 
York with a population of nearly 35,000,000, or about 
260 inhabitants to the square mile. ‘The Island at 
various times was invaded by the Hindus and Moslems. 
Indian immigrants probably visited there about the beginning 
of the Christian Era. Ptolemaus, a Greek geographer living 
in Egypt, reported in the second century A.D. that the Island 
was very fertile, and stone monuments have been found 
which show that a Hindu kingdom existed here in the fourth 
or fifth century A.D. ‘The influence of its earlier history is 
still paramount and from an ethnological standpoint scarcely 
any other part of the world is more interesting. It finally 
came under Dutch dominion in 1520, and has been ever 
since, with the exception of a brief British inter-regnum 
under Governor Raffles, later the founder of Singapore. 

The Dutch Government is essentially autocratic. It con- 
sists of an omnipotent Governor General who represents the 
Crown, and he, together with his heads of departments and 
the governors of the provinces, rule the country. 

Queen Wilhelmina has the second largest colonial empire 
in the world in point of population. ‘The Dutch, however, 
do not attempt to rule by force but by keeping local princes 
on their thrones and loading them with honours and gifts and 
making the population believe that these native princes really 
rule. They haye all the appearance of doing so, as they have 
gorgeously uniformed body-guards and very elaborate courts, 
but it is the Dutchmen who wield the power. 

In 1918, however, there was established a Colonial House 
of Representatives (Voolksraad) which assembled in Ba- 

276 


DUTCH GOVERNMENT 277 


tavia. Of its forty-nine members, twenty-five are ap- 
pointed by the Governor General, and the rest are chosen 
by the local councils. “Twenty-four of these are natives and 
twenty-four Europeans and Chinese, the Speaker being se- 
lected by the Crown. This body is not really a legislature, 
having no authority to make laws, but it is consulted about 
budgets, military matters and political affairs. While jus- 
tice is administered by European Courts, most of the local 
cases are given over to the native chieftains under the con- 
trol of European civil service officers. In many places the 
old customs of the natives are recognised as law. 

Considerable development has been made under Dutch 
control. Schools and libraries have been opened. ‘The 
Javasche Bank has a charter for the issuing of bank notes, 
thus strengthening the credit systems of the Islands. Com- 
merce has been furthered, the foreign trade of all other na- 
tions being on a parity with the Dutch. ‘The Government, 
however, is so anxious to encourage capitalists in developing 
the Islands, that while the individual enterprises have coined 
money, realising often from 25 to 80 per cent. on their in- 
vestments, the Government has had a total deficit of 
362,000,000 guilder in the last ten years. Irrigation sys- 
tems have also been developed and agriculture advanced to 
a high degree of efficiency and railroads and highways have 
been built. “The fact that the population of nearly 35,000,- 
ooo get a sufficient food supply from their own land, shows 
unusual fertility and effective agricultural methods. 

An important agrarian law, prohibiting the sale of lands 
owned by natives to people of any other countries, was passed 
in 1870 to protect native farmers from free competition 
with Chinese and Europeans, but the leasing of certain 
lands to natives of other countries was allowed. Of the 
Javanese population, 90 per cent. are farmers. 

The Government owns and operates coal, tin, and gold 
mines as a source of revenue, and carries on rubber and. 
other plantations. 

Only 110,000 Frotianders live in Java, or one to every 


278 PAava 


325 natives. As they usually are real settlers, and plan 
to make Java their permanent home, they educate their 
children here and maintain several high schools and colleges. 
English is rapidly being introduced, as may be judged from 
the English signs seen here and there, which sometimes need 
some grammatical amendments. For instance, at Buiten- 
zorg there is this gem: “It is niceful and lusty picnic to 
bathe down here. You can entrance fee for 50 cents each, 
children 25 cent. It is preparation to furnish eating.” 


THE PEOPLE 


The Javanese are delicately built, appearing much like 
Filipinos. The young women are very slender and supple, 
and do graceful native dancing. Islam permits four wives, 
but this is usually found to be too expensive. Divorce is 
the fashion of the day, requiring only a nominal formula. 
Some Javanese men are divorced twenty or more times. 

It requires only a few cents a day to feed a native, all 
that is necessary being some rice, dried fish, and sweets. 
Banana leaves serve as plates, cocoanut shells as cups, and 
fingers as forks. ‘The natives live in thatched huts, usually 
without floors. ‘The clothing used is limited, men largely 
being naked from their waist up, with a so-called sarong 
or skirt. In addition, the women wear the abaya, a sort 
of waist (often adorned with gold and silver coins for but- 
tons), which, however, is usually too short to meet the skirt, 
leaving a few inches of the body exposed. ‘Taken as a 
whole, it is the simple life. 

It is a Javanese custom for an inferior always to squat 
down in the presence of a superior. 

The people are given to small thefts and are not very 
reliable, but are respectful to authority, although occasion- 
ally there have been rumours and ripples of rebellion. The 
men are lazy, and let the women do the hard work. It is 
true all over the Far East that natives want all the white 
man’s rights and privileges without assuming any of his 





JAVA GIRLS IN HOTEL GROUNDS 
A JAVANESE LAUNDRY 





® 


? 


THE PEOPLE 279 


duties and responsibilities. ‘The Javanese are a care-free 
people, the men and women,—mostly women, ploughing 
in their fields with their carabaos, or water buffaloes, and 
planting and harvesting rice in different parts of the field at 
the same time. In the evening one may see them gathered 
around their doors, laughing and singing their melodious 
folk-songs. “The Chinese, however, are the backbone of all 
business. 

At the hotels, hundreds of tourists are provided for with 
efficient precision, and waited on by barefooted Malays in 
turban and robe. ‘The hotel music is provided by Euro- 
peans, although the musical selections are largely of the 
popular American sort. Just outside the hotel on the green, 
one can see native men and women dancers, keeping slow 
rhythmic step to the weird tom-tom music. 


BATAVIA 


Steamers land passengers for Batavia at Tanjong Priok, 
opened in 1886 after the building of two great breakwaters. 
This is the real harbour of Batavia, although the city itself, 
five miles distant, can easily be reached by automobile, or 
by half-hour electric trolleys. In this short ride one passes 
half-hidden villages and lone huts, bamboo groves, banana, 
palm, cocoanut, rubber and chinchona (quinine producing) 
trees, with brilliant floral colouring everywhere. ‘There are 
in Java over 5,000 species of trees and plants, with a pro- 
fusion that seems inexhaustible. 

Batavia is a city of 240,000 inhabitants, with a world- 
wide trade, banks, parks, government buildings, shaded and 
asphalted streets, modern residences, and an unusually fine 
Museum. 

Batavia literally means ‘fair meadows.” ‘The purchase 
was originally made by an agreement for enough land to be 
enclosed in a bullock’s hide. The unsuspicious natives imag- 
ined they were getting a bargain, in view of the few square 
feet that could be enclosed, but the wily Dutch cut the 


280 be hal He | 


bullock’s hide into the thinnest strips possible and made a 
connecting rope by which they encircled a large district. 
They had evidently heard the story of the founding of 
Athens. 

The city is divided into two distinct parts, namely, Ba- 
tavia and the newer part of the city, Weltevreden. 
Batavia is on rather low ground, and is given over almost 
wholly to business, only Chinese and natives actually living 
there. Europeans and the better classes generally live in 
Weltevreden, which is on higher ground. 

The former Palace of the Governor General, dating from 
1708, is now used as the Department of Public Works, and 
is very quaint, having among other features old titles illus- 
trating Bible stories. “The Chinese quarters are intersected 
by a series of canals, giving the impression of a Chinese 
Venice. 

Near the City: Church,—a structure suggesting the 
artistic simplicity of the seventeenth century,—is a wall on 
which is set the skull of Peter Eberveld, a Eurasian, 
who in 1722 was the leader of a menacing rebellion that 
sought to drive the Dutch out of Java. He and forty-six 
other associates were beheaded. An inscription reads, “In 
detested memory of the traitor, Peter Eberveld, who was 
executed, nobody will be allowed to build in this place, either 
at this time or the future,” 


WELTEVREDEN 


In Weltevreden, the upper modern town, one finds all 
the hotels, government offices, clubs, shops and residences. 
There are long spacious avenues, shaded with tamarinds, 
palms and gorgeous plane trees. Everywhere are seen beau- - 
tiful homes set in palm-crowned gardens. Many bunga- 
lows are also built along the canals, which are in evidence 
on all sides, suggesting the city of Amsterdam. 

The Museum, with its handsome buildings in the Gre- 
cian style, is celebrated all over the scientific world. In 


SIGHTSEEING 281 


front of the main entrance is a brass elephant presented by 
the King of Siam in 1871. In the room surrounding the 
central court are Javanese antiquities, armour, implements, 
art works, costumes, musical instruments, and fine metal 
work. 

The Treasure Chamber contains gold, silver and jewelled 
articles and ornaments of the richest workmanship,—a gor- 
geous and royal collection, that is one of the greatest sights 
of Java. ‘There are also bas-reliefs and statues from tem- 
ples and superb specimens of the paraphernalia of Buddhist 
worship. 

Rijswijk (Rice Town) is the fashionable street, on 
which are located the Harmonie Club, many handsome resi- 
dences set in oriental gardens, several of the most impor- 
tant hotels and the Department of Colonial Administration. 
The principal shops are also found in this street and in 
Noordwijk Street on the other side of the Tjiliwong River. 

Koningsplein (King’s Square) is very large, requir- 
ing an hour’s walk to encircle it. It seems rater bare at 
first sight, but this is intentional, as the people are so sated 
with luxuriant foliage that they find a relief in its wide and 
airy spaces. “The wealth and fashion of the City walk and 
drive in its broad avenues and attractive thoroughfares. 
The finest government buildings and residences front the 
Park, including the Governor General’s Palace, used by him 
only a small part of the year,—as his official and preferred 
residence is located in the Botanical Garden at Buitenzorg. 
Here also are the Dutch Athletic Club, the Museum, the 
recreation grounds called Deca Park, the College for Civil 
Servants, the Royal National Historical Society and Library, 
besides several consulates and many palatial homes. 

In the Waterlooplein (Waterloo Square), commemorat- 
ing the Battle of Waterloo, is a column supporting the 
“Lion of Waterloo” on its pedestal. On one side of the 
Square is the High Court of Justice, a Palace that houses 
various governmental departments, the Concordia Club, and 
the Roman Catholic Church with two distinctive slender 


282 JAVA 


towers. On Sundays the City Band gives musical programs 
here. 

Wilhelmina Park is small but charming, and very 
quiet and restful. In the centre is the Fort Prins Hen- 
drik, now used as an arsenal. 

The principal Java Hotels are the Des Indes, Der 
Nederlangen and the Grand Hotel de Java. ‘They are of 
one story, the rooms being surrounded by wide verandahs, 
with a cool delightful garden in the centre. “They are 
equipped with every reasonable convenience to be found in 
a tropical country. 


BUITENZORG 


The railway to Buitenzorg (word means “without 
care’) runs through extensive rice fields and banana and 
cocoanut groves and jungles, making a very engrossing ride, 
and showing the interior of Java with its villages, scattered 
bamboo, straw-thatched huts and picturesque native life. 
The Dutch stone houses with their red tiled roofs add a 
novel note to the harmonious landscape. 

Buitenzorg is the Capital of Java, and the official resi- 
dence of the Governor General. ‘There are some attractive 
public buildings and residences here, a museum, a club house 
and some beautiful neighbourhood drives. 

The city was founded in 1745 by Governor General 
Imhoff, and it has since been the place of the Governor’s 
permanent residence. ‘The population is 46,595, of whom 
4,193 are Europeans. It is exceptionally healthy, with a 
moderate climate, although it is sometimes hot at mid-day. 

Hotel Bellevue has famous “mountain rooms,” with a 
superlative outlook, facing Mt. Salak and the cocoanut 
groves through which the Tjisdane River winds. The whole 
Island is filled with superb mountain scenery, but one must > 
go to Buitenzorg and beyond to see it. The Hotel 
Chemin de Fer near the station and the entrance to the 
Botanical Garden and the Dibbets Hotel are also com- 
fortable. 


BUITENZORG 283 


The temperature varies from an average of 77.9° F. in 
September, the hottest month, to 76.1° F. in February, the 
coolest month, giving a range of less than 2° F. 

It has quite an extensive European quarter, as it is cooler 
here than in Batavia, and hence more attractive. It rains 
between two and five o’clock 220 days out of the 365, cool- 
ing and refreshing the air, after which people do their walk- 
ing and driving. 


tere BOTANICAL GARDEN 


This was inaugurated in 1817, and has been in charge of 
a succession of prominent scientific botanists. It is world- 
famous, having the most extensive collection of trees and 
plants to be found in any tropical botanical garden. It is 
a question, however, whether it is as beautiful as the Pere- 
deniya Garden in Ceylon. About 200 natives are employed 
in keeping the place in its orderly condition. 

It has an Herbarium, a Library of Agriculture, a Bo- 
tanical Museum, a Technical Museum, and a Zoological 
Museum containing reptiles and insects. “These are open 
between 9 and 12 A.M. ‘The Garden is so large that it 
would take two hours to walk through its main thorough- 
fares, but unfortunately no conveyances, not even rikishas, 
are permitted. 

Its distinctive feature is the classified grouping by which 
similar and related species are placed together. “The labels 
give the scientific name and the original habitat of each. 

The front entrance is near the Chinese quarter, just oppo- 
site the Department of Agriculture, and leads to the cele- 
brated avenue of giant Canarium, or Kanary trees, whose 
branches are woven together in a perfect arch nearly a hun- 
dred feet above the drive. The trunks are embowered in a 
mass of climbing parasites, some of whose entwining strands 
would be 300 feet long if unwound. Gigantic orchids, hav- 
ing as many as 3,000 flowers at one time, are a distinctive 
feature here. Near by is the monument of the wife of Sir, 


284 JAF 4 


Thomas Stamford Raffles, who in his earlier career was 
Lieutenant Governor of Java. It has this inscription: 
“Sacred to the memory of Olivia Marianne, wife of ‘Thomas 
Stamford Raffles,’ with the following pathetic lines: 


“Oh thou whom ne’er my constant heart 
One moment hath forgot 
Tho’ fate severe hath bid us part 
Yet still—forget me not.” 
The poetry of this epitaph leaves much to be desired, but 
its genuine devotion is manifest. 

Here are found trees with every form of leaf,—leaves 
almost transparent, leaves as large as an ordinary door, and 
leaves of every shade and colour. Here also are trees whose 
fruits contain strychnine; trees whose thick air roots are in- 
terlaced in fantastic shapes; climbing rattans with prickly 
spines, palms of a hundred species, tropical pines, mahogany 
trees, trees producing cocaine, teakwood trees and monster 
bamboos. 

Some of the many kinds of palms found growing here are 
the emperor palm, banka palm, fan palm, cabbage palm, sago 
palm, cocoanut palm, date palm, feather palm, oil palm, the 
climbing palm, the exceptionally beautiful traveller’s palm, 
and a hundred other species. “They furnish food, shelter, 
clothing, timber and building materials, fibre, starch, sugar, 
oil, wax, dyes and wine. 

There are flowers of infinite variety; orchids,—mostly 
hanging on trees,—of several hundred sorts, one of them 
having a stem five or six feet long supporting flower clus- 
ters; blossoms of every fantastic shape,—elliptical, bell- 
shaped, cylindrical; spotted flowers of bewildering hues; 
wax-like flowers; flowers whose fragrance is overpowering; 
flowers growing on candelabra-shaped branches, and rare 
rose gardens fragrant with memories of home. 

There are fruit trees,—figs, jackfruit, custard apples, 
pinnata or sausage fruit, shaped like hanging sausages, the 
parmentiera with fruit like candlesticks, and the cannon ball 
tree, the fruit looking like black cannon balls. 











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BOTANICAL GARDEN 285 


The greenhouses. in which certain plants are grown are 
not built to protect them from the cold, but to shelter them 
from the sun. 

In the small lake, bordered by the magnificent ficus re- 
ligiosa, or sacred bo tree, with its fine symmetry and its 
brilliant dark green foliage trembling and rustling like aspen 
leaves, the Governor General’s Palace is charmingly re- 
flected. “The lake contains scores of aquatic plants, among 
which are the victoria regia, a species of water lily, with its 
mammoth flat leaves reclining on the water, as well as lotus 
flowers of many colours. At one side is a small cemetery 
where a recent Governor General and other prominent peo- 
ple are interred. The Governor General’s Palace, quite 
suggestive of the White House at Washington, is set on a 
knoll surrounded by an extensive deer park. 

The Garden extends over the Tjilawong River, crossed 
by picturesque bridges, past imposing avenues and perfectly 
kept lawns, adorned with flower beds. A special experi- 
mental garden of 200 acres in this section is given over to 
the culture of coffee, tea, cinnamon and all sorts of spices, so 
that the Garden not only makes a great contribution to 
horticultural art and beauty, but is of real commercial and 
economic value. Here also is a special zoological depart- 
ment of tropical animals and birds. 

Various excursions may be taken to tea plantations, and 
to the crater of Mt. Salak and the geysers at Tjisolak, but 
these take a day or more. 

Characteristic Batik Work. It is in this country that 
one should purchase Batik if intending to buy it at all, for 
its manufacture is peculiar to this tropical Island. ‘The 
patient Javanese woman has been making it for centuries. 

Briefly this process consists in drawing designs in hot wax 
on white cotton cloth, colouring the unwaxed portions of the 
cloth by dipping it again and again into vats of different 
coloured dyes, each colour requiring a new wax process. 
Skilled and artistic workers produce elaborate and beautiful 
designs, the choicest of which are autographed by the maker, 


286 JAVA 


and of course command much higher prices than the ordi- 
nary work. 

The batiker (nearly always a woman), will use nothing 
but the finest weave of English cotton. ‘This closely woven 
surface holds the wax, forming a firm layer of it instead of 
allowing it to penetrate between the threads, as it would do 
in a looser weave. After her material is torn to the proper 
size for the garment she is about to make, it is neatly hemmed, 
which is all the dress-making it requires. If it is to be a 
sarong, or skirt, for either man or woman it will be 84 by 
42 inches, if a breast cloth for a woman or a binding for her 
baby, 84 by 21 inches. The cloth must then be made 
mateng, or “ripe,” for absorbing the dyes. ‘This is done by 
soaking and drying it six or eight times a day for a week to 
ten days in a mixture of either peanut or castor oil, mixed 
with a lye made from the ashes of burned rice stubble. In 
some parts of the country this ripening process continues as 
long as forty days, giving the goods a velvety feeling that 
suggests silk rather than cotton. 

Next the worker starches it, being careful to have the 
starch of just the right consistency. ‘Then she irons it and 
lays out her design, tracing in hot wax the outlines of the 
principal figures. When the drawing is complete on one 
side, the cloth is turned over and by letting the light shine 
through, the design is repeated in wax on the reverse side. 
‘This is why there is no right or wrong side to a batik. A 
woman must squat on her mat before her easel for twenty 
days to do the wax painting of an intricate design, working 
twelve hours a day. Of course the cloth is waxed, the wax 
boiled out and re-waxed for each colour produced. 

‘The dyeing process is as tedious as the “ripening” of the 
goods, but its painstaking care accounts for the everlasting- 
ness of the colours in a Javanese batik. ‘This is important 
because it must be worn in tropical sunlight and washed 
daily, being pounded on the stones of the river bank. ‘The 
process is long drawn out but a garment after five years’ 
wear will still be beautiful and many are used for a life- 


BATIK WORK 287 


time when kept for festive occasions. Frequently a choice 
one will be handed down through three generations. 

In view of the antiquity of the art it is not surprising 
that there are almost countless standard designs,—swastika, 
Greek cross, a plain diagonal, plant and animal motifs, an- 
chors, diadems, tombstones, sedan chairs, crabs, lizards, sun, 
moon, stars, clouds, lightning,—but the most splendid of all 
and most widely used is a conventionalised wing of the 
sacred bird of Java, singly or paired. ‘The patterns richest 
in legend and symbolism are most loved by the people. 

While these real batiks may still be found occasionally 
at pawn shops or at first class shops where one insists on 
seeing genuine work at high prices, the scarfs and various 
decorative pieces which are sold to tourists are cheap prints 
or simply fancy dyed pieces such as any one with a little 
knowledge and experience can easily make. Some are “tie 
dyed,” such as one finds in India and China. ‘This effect 
is accomplished by gathering and tightly tying the fabric so 
that it cannot absorb the dye where this is done, 


SOURABAYA 


Some travellers go by steamer to the city of Sourabaya, 
near the opposite end of Java, and take the train halfway 
across the Island to Poerworedjo, motoring twenty-four 
miles to the Borobudur ruins. Borobudur can also be 
reached by automobile from Djokja. 

Sourabaya is four miles from the harbour (Tanjong 
Perak), and is a city of 192,190 inhabitants, of whom 
17,497 are Europeans. Sourabaya is a great centre for ship- 
ping, especially for the sugar trade. 

The Wilhelmina Tower, with its fine views, the Old 
Fortress (Fort Prins Hendrik), the Aloon-Aloon Square, 
with the Public Gardens adjoining, are places of tourist in- 
terest. Many attractive drives allure one to the suburbs 
and vicinity, some showing the distant mountains and also 
Smeroe, the highest active volcano in Java. 


288 JAVA 


The railway ride from Sourabaya to Poerworedjo is pic- 
turesque, and gives a good panorama of Javanese scenery, 
and of the Javanese life in town and country. 


BOROBUDUR 


The Borobudur (or Boro Boedor) temple, the name of 
which means “shrine of the many Buddhas,” shows in a 
majestic way the once commanding influence of Buddhism 
in Java, although the decorations of its tower and walls 
were never completed, because Buddhism had begun to 
wane before it was finished. It does not consist of one 
building on level ground, but of separate buildings on sev- 
eral terraces, six in all, encircling a hill which is crowned by 
a dome fifty feet in diameter. 

As one draws near, the temple takes the appearance of an 
immense crown, then on closer approach it assumes the char- 
acter of a majestic round pyramidal structure with nearly 
a hundred miniature crown-shaped towers. In each of 
these is an image of Buddha, seated on a pedestal shaped 
like a lotus flower. 

The temple is a gigantic stupa built around the top of 
a hill and enclosed by a series of four sculptured galleries, 
on the top of which rise three terraces. Each side of the 
building, which is constructed of grey volcanic stone, meas- 
ures 531 feet at the base. It was built during the eighth or 
ninth century, having been designed by Hindu architects, 
and is alleged to be the spot where some of the ashes of 
Buddha are buried. 

There are altogether 1504 bas-reliefs, representing scenes 
from the life of Buddha, which, if placed in a straight line, 
would measure three miles. Over half of these are in good 
preservation. ‘They represent incidents that have to do with 
agriculture, the chase, and especially with the life of 
Buddha, making a complete “Picture Bible” of the Buddhist 
teaching. In each of the 432 niches is a life-sized figure of 
Buddha, all facing outward. ‘The middle of the tower has 


Peo AND FIGURES 289 


a straight stairway by which the visitor can climb to the 
highest gallery and enjoy the tropical beauty of the en- 
circling view, which includes the active volcano Merapi in 
the distance. 


It is unfortunate that this Temple is not more accessible, 
as it is certainly one of the most extraordinary monuments 
of early Buddhism to be found in Asia. 


Meier N TAR Yo FACTS AND 
FIGURES 


Java is the most important, though not the largest, Island 
of Holland’s East India possessions. ‘The Governor Gen- 
eral, although an autocrat, has an Advisory Council. Dr. 
D. Fock, appointed September, 1920, holds that office at the 
present time. He is paid a salary of $70,000. 

‘The complete area is 50,557 square miles, and the popula- 
tion (1920) is 34,984,171, of whom 169,355 are Europeans. 

There is complete religious liberty. The Reformed 
Dutch Church, which is the principal Church of the Hol- 
landers, has 66 ministers. “The Roman Catholics have 120 
priests, and there are 600 missionary workers of various 
denominations. Ninety per cent. of the natives are Mo- 
hammedan. 

The Dutch language is taught in the schools for Euro- 
peans, and the schools for natives teach Dutch as well as the 
vernacular. 

Europeans conduct their own Courts, but native chiefs 
have much to say in trying minor cases among their people. 

The revenues (1925) were 648,879,000 guilders, and the 
expenditures, 688,999,000. 

The Army is composed of Dutch officers and soldiers, but 
it includes 25,000 natives. ‘The expenses for Army and 
Navy are 120,000,000 guilders. 


290 JAVA 


The imports (1922) were 1,310,823,000 guilders; ex- 
ports, 2,267,871,000 guilders. There are 1,690 miles of 
railroads in operation which are controlled by the Gov- 
ernment. In 1923, 10,009 steamers entered Java ports. 

The American Consulate has its location opposite Java 
Bank. 

Products. Java produces rice, sugar, coffee, tea, Peru- 
vian bark, cacao, pepper, nutmeg, and various spices, to- 
gether with rubber, ebony, teakwood and copra. Among 
the fruits are papaia, breadfruit, the rambulan, which is 
covered with pink spines and has a greenish grape-like jelly 
within, and especially the mangosteen, which is characteristic 
of Java and one of the finest of fruits, having a dark purple 
shell enclosing a white centre. It has a perfumed, cool, 
sweet, and melting-in-the-mouth taste. A large standing 
reward is offered to the one who can deliver this fruit in 
a good condition to the Queen of Holland, but up to date 
no one has been successful, as the fruit decays too rapidly. 

The Climate. ‘The climate of Java is quite hot, usually 
humid, and is especially trying in the middle of the day, yet 
the highest official temperature recorded is 97° F., while 
in Boston there have been official temperatures of 105° F., 
and in the city of Washington even higher, while the highest 
in Batavia was 96° F. in 1877, and the lowest 66° F. in 
the same year. Only once in recent years has the tempera- 
ture reached 95°. ‘There are from 50 to 150 inches of rain 
in the several parts of Java, accounting in bate for its vivid 
and luxuriant vegetation. 

Life in the tropics entails more of a fight against disease 
than of suffering from heat. White people live many years 
in this climate, apparently without serious injury to health, 
while on the other hand, a negro reached the North Pole 
with Peary. Existence is always a question of health con- 
ditions rather than of temperature. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 291 


Things American. Only a few hundred Americans 
live in Java, but things American are very popular,—jazz 
music, American dances, movies, sewing machines, Kodaks, 
photographs, and especially automobiles, there being ten 
American automobiles for every one from all other countries 
combined. 


RECENT BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Java and the East Indies, F. G. Carpenter. ’23, Double- 
day. 

Tropical Holland, H. Torchiana. ’23, University of Chi- 
cago Press. 

Where the Strange Trails Go (East Indies), E. A. Powell. 
21, Scribner. 

Letters of a Javanese Princess. Published by Knopf. 

Dutch East, J. M. Brown. ’14, Dutton. 

Java, Sumatra and Dutch East Indies, A. Cabaton. ’14, 
Scribner. 

Java, J. F. Scheltema. ’13, Macmillan. 

Monumental Java, J. F. Scheltema. ’13, Macmillan. 

Java and Her Neighbours, A. 8, Walcott. ’14, Putnam. 


SINGAPORE 


“A great international turnstile of commerce” 


INGAPORE is a city of 457,571 inhabitants (1923). 
S It is built on a flat island, the highest hill being only 
- 500 feet in altitude. It seems probable that this entire 
South Sea region was once a part of the Asiatic Continent, 
now broken up into the islands of Sumatra, Borneo, Java, 
etc. Singapore is half-way between China and India, thus 
making a natural commercial centre for them both, and in 
addition it draws from the Malay Peninsula, Siam, and 
other countries of Southeastern Asia. 
There are beautiful views along the peninsular coast 


292 SINGAPORE 


approaching Keppel Harbour. All the way the vegetation 
riots in wild tropical luxuriance down to the very edge of 
the water. Keppel Harbour is deep and well sheltered, and 
is free from the ravages of typhoons. 

The Tanjong Pagar Dock, four miles east of Singa- 
pore, is one of the largest and best equipped in the Far 
East. A whole series of wharfs a mile long stretch toward 
the city. The newly made land facing the harbour gives 
promise of making Singapore one of the greatest shipping 
centres in Asia, perhaps equalling Hong-Kong. 

In view of the fact that a hundred years ago Singapore 
Was a mangrove swamp and a dreaded lurking place for 
pirates, this development is all the more remarkable. In 
1923, 9,354 foreign vessels entered the harbour. 

The Chinese constitute seventy-five per cent. of the in- 
habitants and are the greatest factor in merchandising. 
There are many Chinese millionaires, the finest show-palace 
in Singapore belonging to a Chinaman. They have their 
own Chamber of Commerce, and elect their own repre- 
sentatives in the city administration. “They are the domi- 
nant race in every respect except politically. 

The Malays are mentally slow and disinclined to hard 
work, taking up the petty occupations, such as domestic 
service and driving. ‘The rikisha men are strong and robust 
looking, far superior in physique to those that are seen in 
India or Ceylon, but are inclined to evade any strenuous 
work, 


SIR THOMAS STAMFORD RAYiTzs 


In Raffles Plain is a bronze statue of Raffles erected in 
1887. ‘The whole city bears tribute to his genius as a 
diplomat and administrator, and his name is attached to 
many municipal buildings and activities. 

He was born in 1781 on his father’s ship while it was 
anchored off Jamaica. At sixteen he became a clerk in the 
East India Company, at which time he was simply plain 


RAFFLES 293 


Tom Raffles. He learned the Malay language and became 
an interpreter, soon stepping into the Acting Secretaryship. 
His talents were quickly recognised. He went to the 
Malacca East India Post which was on the point of being 
abandoned, and wrote the authorities such an able report 
regarding the hopeful outlook there, that the withdrawal 
was recalled. 

At the age of thirty, he planned the capture of Java which 
the French had taken from the Dutch, and when he suc- 
ceeded, he was made Lieutenant Governor. He remained in 
this position for five years, during which period he multi- 
plied the commerce and revenues many times. His admin- 
istration was brought to a sudden close because England, 
for diplomatic reasons, by a special treaty made with Hol- 
land, returned Java to the Dutch in spite of his vehement 
protest. He then went to England where he wrote a His- 
tory of Java and later was appointed Governor of Sumatra. 
On his arrival he found that the Dutch were trying to drive 
all English trade out of the Indian Ocean, and hence began 
casting about for a good location in which to establish a 
port for Great Britain which would help to extend her 
Far East commerce. 

In 1819 he planted the British flag over Singapore, having 
made a deal with the Sultan of Johore on the basis of a pay- 
ment of $600,000 by Great Britain, together with an addi- 
tional $24,000 annually. ‘This was a brilliant piece of 
diplomacy, as making an English port of Singapore put 
Great Britain conspicuously on the map of the Far East, 
and destroyed the dream of Holland of turning the Indian 
Ocean into a Dutch lake. In 1837, the British Govern- 
ment was established here and it has since gradually domi- 
nated the whole Peninsula. 

Returning to England, Raffles became involved in po- 
litical controversies which embittered his last years. He 
died in 1826 when only forty-five years of age. Lady 
Raffles after his death had to refund £10,000 which he had 
drawn from the budget for the legitimate expenses he as- 


294 SINGAPORE 


sumed in establishing Singapore. Although he seemed to 
be ‘‘a prophet without honour in his own country” at that 
time, his remarkable service to Great Britain was later 
recognised by a tablet in Westminster Abbey, and his mem- 
ory is cherished by the whole Empire. 


PLACES OF INTERV aS 


Raffles Place is the commercial centre of Singapore, 
many of its largest mercantile houses and shops being located 
here. 

The Cavenagh Bridge gives a fine opportunity of see- 
ing the variegated Chinese junks and other interesting craft 
on the Singapore River. 

There are some imposing government buildings, among 
which the Supreme Court, the Public Works, the Treasury, 
the Audit Office, etc., will be pointed out. Nearby is the 
Victoria Memorial Hall with a small bronze statue of an 
elephant presented by a prominent visitor from India. 

The Botanical Garden, originally established by Raf- 
fles, is three miles from the city and contains 300 acres. 
It has 1,300 tropical plants of all descriptions, and there are 
delightful avenues of trees, together with floral arbours and 
lotus-covered lakes. While this Garden does not compare 
with that at Buitenzorg in Java, or with that at Kandy in 
Ceylon, it has a charm of its own, and makes a beautiful 
objective for a drive. 

The Raffles Library and Museum contains nearly 
50,000 volumes, together with a collection consisting of 
zoological and Botanical specimens found in the Malay 
Peninsula. Almost every mammal is represented, prop- 
erly ‘‘taxidermed” and staged. “There are also weapons, 
boats, facsimile houses, musical instruments, costumes, uten- 
sils,—making a fine ethnological exhibit. 

The Connaught Drive follows the seashore and is 
shaded by tropical trees. It is a favourite drive because 
thie is usually a refreshing breeze, and a shifting series of 
land and sea views. 


SINGAPORE SIGHTS 295 


The Drive Around the Gap is the most enjoyable ride 
in the vicinity of Singapore, passing through native villages, 
rubber plantations, charming suburban estates and gardens, 
the varied panorama being interspersed with beautiful 
glimpses of the ocean. 

A trip to the Palace of the Sultan of Johore is a pleasant 
outing although the Palace itself is distinctly a shabby and 
second class affair. 

A Far East Gibraltar. At the Washington Confer- 
ence, England agreed to a status quo for Hong-Kong, which 
on that account has little value as a naval base. She re- 
fused, however, to put Singapore in the same category, in 
spite of Japan’s strenuous insistence. As Singapore is 28,000 
miles from Nagasaki, the purpose of making it an impreg- 
nable naval station is scarcely ‘“‘a violation of the principle 
of the Washington Conference” and “an act of hostility to 
Japan,” as the Japanese press almost unanimously asserted. 

There are world observers who believe that there are 
secret designs between Japan and Russia with the hope also 
of enlisting China which would make the position of Eng- 
land precarious in the Far East. England not only has 
great colonies which can be protected by Singapore, such as 
India, Burma, Australia, New Zealand, the Malay Penin- 
sula, Hong-Kong, etc., but an annual trade in the Far 
East second only to that of Liverpool, of approximately five 
billion dollars to conserve. Hence an impregnable Singa- 
pore becomes a guaranty of peace in the Western Pacific. 
To neglect it is simply to present Japan with the absolute 
control of these colonies and their adjacent waters. Eng- 
land expects immediately to expend $50,000,000, and in the 
next twenty-five years, five to ten times that amount. 


DUPPEE MENTARY FACTS AND 
FIGURES 


The whole of the Malay Peninsula is not technically 
- under the rule of Great Britain, but the British influence is 


296 SINGAPORE 


felt over the entire area. ‘The entire population consists of 
1,416,000 Malays, and 1,173,354 Chinese. 

Great Britain’s Straits Settlement contains 1,600 square 
miles, including Singapore, Penang, Cocos Islands, Labuan, 
and Christmas Island. The city of Singapore is on an 
island twenty-seven miles long by fourteen wide, embracing 
217 square miles, separated from the southern extremity of 
the Malay Peninsula itself by a strait a mile wide. 

The Straits Settlement is a Crown Colony. The Goy- 
ernor is Sir Laurence N. Guillemard, who is also Com- 
mander-in-Chief of the Army. 

The revenues of the Colony (1923) were £3,886,868, 
and the expenditures, £3,117,074; total imports were 
£90,885,142; exports, £83,206,399. The exports jumped 
£40,000,000 in one year, owing to an arbitrary price fixing 
of rubber. As most rubber comes to the United States, 
England can rapidly pay her war debt to us. The principal 
exports consist of tin (the Malay Peninsula furnishing half 
the tin supply of the world, averaging $100,000,000 in 
annual exports), rubber (half the rubber supply of the 
world coming from the Malay Peninsula), fruits, spices, 
cereals, rattans, hides, copra, rice and tapioca. Extensive 
beds of coal have been recently uncovered. 

The religion of the Malays is Mohammedan. The Chi- 
nese are usually Buddhists. In Singapore is the beautiful 
Saint Andrew’s Cathedral (Church of England) with spires 
204 feet high. Here is also a Presbyterian Church. ‘The 
Methodist Episcopal Church has a great Publishing House 
in Singapore and extensive missions throughout the Malay 
Peninsula. 

Singapore is not so hot as its position, almost on the 
equator, would lead one to expect. ‘The climate is well 
adapted for the family life of foreigners. “The Europeans 
living under sanitary conditions have quite a low death rate. 
The heat is largely confined to the hours from II A.M. to 





SINGAPORE—OLD AND NEW LOCOMOTION 
BURMESE WOMEN ENJOYING A SMOKE 











Beit OG RAPAY 297 


4. P.M. and is relieved by tempering breezes. About one 
hundred inches of rain fall annually. 

Bazaars. All kinds of purchases can be made here,— 
India rugs, India shawls, Malacca canes, jewels of every 
sort,—mostly glass, Malay sarongs (native skirts), coral, 
rattan ware, Swatow drawn-thread work, and Saigon lace. 
Prices, except for native industries, are rather high, 


Peon NreBIBLIOGRAPH Y 


Into the East, R. Curle. ’23, Macmillan. 

From Golden Gate to Golden Sun, H. Nordon. ’23, 
Small. 

Magic of Malaya, C. W. Harrison, ’16, Lane. 


BURMA 


Peer AND SOCIAL FACTORS 
THE PEOPLE 


P SHE Burmese people belong to the Tibetan group 
of the Chinese family, being short, thick-set, light 
brown in colour, with marked Mongolian fea- 

tures, high cheek bones, narrowed eyes, and noses which are 

narrow at the bridge and broad at the base. ‘The men 
average five feet two inches, and the women, five feet. 

They are usually Buddhists but in some parts of the coun- 

try are given to Animism, or the worship of Nature. 

‘The people are frank and open, simple in their manner 
and very friendly, possessing a marked sense of humour, 
proud-spirited, arrogant when given authority, credulous and 
easily imposed upon, light-hearted to the point of improvi- 
dence, and so lacking in self-control that their anger fre- 
quently leads to brutality. They are incurable gamblers. 


298 BURMA 


While not war-like, they have a passive courage and are 
very dependable in emergency. During the World War 
they loyally gave a generous response in men, as well as in 
contributions to war relief. 

The dress of the men consists of a silk handkerchief around 
the forehead, a loose jacket on the upper part of the body, 
and a long skirt reaching to the ankles, which is fastened 
around the waist, all of gorgeous colour. ‘They are so disin- 
clined to work that Kipling says that when the Burman 
wishes to work he gets a Madrassi to do it for him. Oftener 
he gets his women folks. 

The women’s dress is like that of the men, except that 
there is no handkerchief around the forehead and the skirt 
is tucked in on the sides instead of being tied in front,— 
making a very neat and graceful effect. ‘The scarf, petti- 
coat and jacket are of three lively hues. “The women are 
bright, cheerful and progressive, superior to the men in 
business ability, handling the money and caring for the 
house, and in some cases managing the shops, meanwhile 
smoking their ‘‘whacking white cheroot” which is a huge 
cigar made up of a compound of herbs and tobacco. Fe- 
male franchise to a considerable degree has been granted. 

Marriage is usually arranged by the parents, and some- 
times by go-betweens, but the tendency now is, owing to 
the partial emancipation of women, for the contracting 
parties, who are nearly always in their ’teens, to make their 
own selection. 

The Pive is the characteristic national amusement and is 
of different kinds, one of actors and clowns who sing and 
dance, another of performers with marionettes, a third of 
a ballet with music and song indulged in by young people, 
and a fourth, a theatre with professional actors. Frequently 
such a diverse entertainment lasts all night. All the forms 
mentioned are part of the Pivé, and the one who gives the 
entertainment pays the bills, the entire pastime being free 
to all. 


PAGODAS 299 


RELIGION 


The Buddhist religion in a superior form has helped to 
make the Burmese much more intelligent and progressive 
than are most of the Buddhists elsewhere. ‘The fact of an 
absence of the caste system, together with a spirit of de- 
mocracy and a respect for women, has given these people a 
higher moral and social standard. Even though their 
Buddhism is somewhat permeated with superstition, it does 
not show the blighting effects of either Hinduism or Mo- 
hammedanism. ‘The pagodas, with their white or golden 
bodies tapering to a needle spire, resplendent with decora- 
tions and glittering with semi-precious stones, add very 
greatly to the picturesque impression of Burmese cities. 

The pagodas in Burma usually have a masonry terrace, a 
high plinth, a bell shaped body and an umbrella spire hung 
with rings, from which little bells are suspended, making a 
musical tinkling whenever the wind blows. 

On each pagoda terrace there are usually minor pagodas 
enshrining a Buddha, besides altars for making offerings, 
large bells, and images of strange monsters. “These pagodas 
make outstanding features in every village of Burma and 
add much to the picturesqueness of the country, one or more 
being rarely out of the traveller’s horizon. The man who 
contributes the money for a pagoda is looked upon as a 
“saint” and is assured of a happy hereafter. ‘The priests 
are treated with great respect and are addressed as “ord.” 

All village Burmese retain their reverence for the nats, 
or spirits of the forests, mountains and trees, and they think 
that they must be propitiated at special shrines. Each family 
has a mat shrine and thank offerings are made in case of the 
birth of a child or of a marriage. The Burmese specify 
thirty-seven important nats, who must be conciliated so that 
they will become patron saints of the family. 

Taken as a whole Buddhism is written large in the minds 
of the people who have brought their gold and jewels in 


300 BURMA 


lavish devotion to their religion. Even many villages have 
gold-sheathed pagodas. 


MISSIONARY WORK 


Adoniram Judson, who started as a Congregationalist, 
later becoming a Baptist, is one of the first and perhaps the 
greatest of all Protestant American missionaries. He be- 
longs to the Church Universal. In his early missionary 
life he was engaged in work in India but as conditions be- 
came hostile there he went to Burma, where his great life 
work was done. 

There were incredible difficulties which he bravely sur- 
mounted without wavering, although he did not make a 
convert for the first seven years. During the war in 1824 
between Burma and the East India Company, Judson was 
imprisoned for two years by the native king, during which 
time his food was brought daily by his devoted wife. Grad- 
ually, however, the mission stations increased in number, 
and churches, schools, colleges and orphanages were estab- 
lished. ‘There is now a great Baptist printing enterprise 
in Rangoon which employs 250 natives and has four re- 
ligious periodicals and prints publications in fourteen differ- 
ent languages, which not only pays for itself, but helps to 
support the missionary work. 

The Baptist Institutions at Alon are interesting to those 
who wish to see Mission work at first hand. Both the 
Anglican Cathedral and the Roman Catholic Cathedral 
are imposing structures. 


EDUCATION - 


Education was evolved generations ago by the native peo- 
ple themselves even before the advent of Great Britain. 
Every village has a monastery, and every monastery has a 
school, and every Burman boy must, in accordance with his 
religion, attend the school, meanwhile wearing a yellow 


BPUCATION 301 


robe and having his head shaved. ‘Those of the boys who 
wish to become Buddhist priests continue the yellow robe 
and the shaven heads. Reading and writing, together with 
a native elementary system of arithmetic, are taught. There 
are now very few boys (and girls to a lesser degree) who 
cannot read and write, and over half of the male adults 
are literate. “This accounts, at least in part, for the marked 
superiority of the Burmese over the Hindus. ‘There is a 
Burmese University at Rangoon. 


RANGOON 


“On the road to Mandalay 
Where the flying fishes play”’— 


Rangoon is on the Rangoon River, which is connected 
by a waterway which will pass steamers at high tide through 
to the Irrawaddy, navigable for nine hundred miles. In 
1852, Rangoon was a fishing village, and in 1921 it had a 
population of 341,962, and a commerce larger than any 
Indian port except Calcutta and Bombay. 

Large cruising steamers usually anchor at Hastings, three 
miles below Rangoon, and passengers are conveyed to the 
dock by the tenders of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company. 
On account of the strong current and tide, tenders ordi- 
narily avoid carrying passengers after dark. 

There are some Fine Public Buildings, among which 
are the Post Office, Currency Buildings, Sailors’ Home, 
Court Houses, Secretariat, Government House, Rangoon 
College, the General Hospital, the Dufferin Hospital, the 
Bernard Library and the Phayre Museum. ‘The Jubilee 
Hall, erected in honour of Queen Victoria’s Jubilee, is used 
for public occasions and for recreative purposes. 

Drives through the Cantonments, Parks, Gardens, Zoo 
and among the Lakes, give one a most favourable idea of 
Rangoon’s suburban charms, which are scarcely surpassed by 
any other Asiatic city. One is along Godwin Road, past 
the Parade Ground and Race Course, then to the left past 


302 BURMA 


the Pegu Club, proceeding to the Prome Road and the 
Halpin Road beyond (called the “Ladies Mile’) to the 
Gymkhana, past the Government House, the Shwe Dagon 
Pagoda, the Cantonment Gardens, and thence to the city. 
A drive northward through the Victoria Memorial Park 
around the Royal Lake in Dalhousie Park, past the Boat 
Club and then back to the Cantonment Garden, should 
not be missed. Dalhousie Park is probably the finest Park 
in all Asia. Some of the public squares and avenues of 
palatial residences are hardly surpassed in the Orient. 

It is an engrossing sight, in the Kipling vernacular, to 
see “elephants pilin’ teak,” at the Burma Trading Cor- 
poration sawmills and timber yards, as they perform their 
task with remarkable skill and intelligence. 


THE SHWE DAGON PAGODA 


The Shwe Dagon Pagoda is the most gorgeous and the 
most venerated place of Buddhist worship in all Indo-China. 
It is well described as “that colossal gilded and jewelled 
monument of the gorgeous East.’”’ Wherever one goes it 
seems always close at hand, as brilliant a mystery as when 
first sighted. It attracts worshippers from all over Asia. 
It is believed by the Burmese to be especially holy because 
in a subterraneous chamber under the Pagoda it is supposed 
to harbour relics of three mythical Buddhas who preceded 
Guatama Buddha,—a drinking cup of one, a robe of an- 
other, and a staff of the third, but these, naturally, cannot 
be seen. 

The Pagoda was erected, so the Buddhists say, in 588 B. c., 
the first Pagoda being only twenty-seven feet high, and one 
pagoda after another, seven layers in all, were built solidly 
upon it. Its present size dates from 1564. ‘There is no 
interior to the Pagoda itself. It was built by voluntary 
labour, and by subscriptions of money and jewels. A num- 
ber of bands of electric incandescent lights encircle the en- 


SHWE DAGON 303 


tire structure from the bottom to the top, making it a re- 
markable spectacle by night, visible for many miles. 

It rests on a great terrace, which is 900 feet by 685 feet, 
and 166 feet above the street level. ‘This terrace can be 
reached only by climbing a series of four long flights of 
stone and brick stairs, worn by the feet of innumerable 
pilgrims. ‘These stairs are covered by sections of roofs of 
carved teakwood, the panelling and beams of which have 
frescoed scenes illustrating the life of Buddha. 

The various levels between the stairs have a series of 
booths owned by the Pagoda authorities and rented to shop- 
keepers, which are largely devoted to the objects connected 
with temple worship. Great quantities of heaped up flowers 
announce their sacred mission by their fragrance. Here 
pilgrims purchase gold leaf which they reverently apply to 
any gilded temple surface. Here also are many characteris- 
tic emblems that appeal to tourists as well as to wor- 
shippers, such as candles and tapers with the little green 
and gold sticks necessary to light them, odd and distinctive 
dolls or marionettes, as well as drums and triangular gongs 
by which the religious mendicants try to attract attention. 
All priests, no matter how high their standing, must beg 
their food and give the laity the opportunity of acquiring 
“merit” by the giving of charity. This encourages a horde 
of beggars, who ply their indolent trade at every turn. 

The Pagoda itself is undoubtedly the most magnificent 
temple structure in all of Asia, having a circumference of 
1,355 feet, or a quarter of a mile. It rises 370 feet above 
the Pagoda platform (making it higher than St. Paul’s in 
London), and 536 feet above the street level. While it is 
much the finest in Burma, the one in Pegu and the one 
opposite Mandalay are both larger and higher. 

The whole surface clear to the top is overlaid with plates 
of gold and in the sunshine the effect is fairly dazzling. 
The tip of the tapering structure is crowned by a gilded 
iron fi, or umbrella, from which hang many gold and silver 
bells heavily embossed with jewels. ‘The #1, which was pre- 


304 BURMA 


sented by the late King of Burma and cost $250,000, was 
thrown down by an earthquake in 1888, and the new one 
which replaced it, more sumptuous than the old, costing 
$600,000 was put up by gratuitous labour. 

At the corners of the basement are strange Assyrian look- 
ing images, half a man and half a lion,—the idea probably 
dating back thousands of years before Buddha,—having two 
bodies and one head, and monstrous ears. ‘They are evi- 
dently a degenerate form of the human-headed winged 
lions that once guarded the gates of Nineveh. Lions with 
grinning lips and prominent teeth are scattered all about. 
These figures of lions are common at the entrance to all 
pagodas. ‘The carvings and inlaid glass work, which are 
in evidence everywhere, deserve attention. 

There are many places where there are carvings of figures 
suggesting the nats, who are the imps, gnomes and wild 
spirits of the woods and rivers who must be propitiated to 
keep their favour. ‘These are contributions from the ancient 
Animism of the Burmese. 

The four largest chapels or minor pagodas, each so im- 
pressive that if they stood anywhere else they would elicit 
the admiration of tourists, have colossal figures of Buddhas, 
some twenty to thirty feet high. Everywhere surrounding 
the central Pagoda with its jewelled splendour, there are 
grouped pagodas and shrines, a thousand or more, each with 
one or several Gautamas, who are sitting, standing and re- 
clining, of all sizes, some white, some black, some of ala- 
baster and others of clay or wood, the smaller ones some- 
times resting on the larger, all surrounded.by thousands of 
lighted candles and tapers. Many of these Buddhas have 
been brought from China, Tibet and other Asiatic countries. 

There are large stone altars near the lions at the entrance 
for offerings of rice and flowers. Burnt offerings of paper 
and candles are made at the smaller niches. “The small 
pagodas are everywhere, each with its ¢i, or umbrella, to- 
gether with image houses for votive offerings, and tall posts, 
from which wave long banners made of bamboo and paper 


SHWE DAGON 305 


pictures. Large bells are numerous, furnished with horn 
or wooden hammers, with which worshippers can call the 
attention of the mats and invoke their favour, every other 
stroke being made on the ground so as to placate the god 
of the earth. 

An enormous bell hangs at the northeast corner of the 
terrace, large enough for half a dozen men to stand in, 
weighing forty-two and a half tons, the third largest known. 
Its inscriptions expatiate on the merits of King ‘Thar- 
rawaddy who presented it in 1840. ‘The British tried to 
carry this away to Calcutta as a trophy but it was acci- 
dentally sunk in the river. As the English engineers were 
unable to raise it, the Burmese begged permission to do 
so and divers lashed enough bamboo to it to finally float 
it, and it was restored to its place. 

The marvellous towering trees which lift their crests 
more than a hundred feet above the terrace make a superb 
setting for the gorgeous spectacle of the encircling pagodas. 

A visit to the Pagoda terrace by moonlight is one of 
travel’s rarest privileges. “The rays of the moon sifting 
through the stately palm trees give a glamour to the entire 
scene. Everything is enriched and mellowed and shorn 
of the suggestion of any undue glare and brilliancy. ‘The 
hushed surroundings, because of the absence of beggars and 
visiting crowds, help to put a real religious environment 
and atmosphere to the whole setting. 

It is a distance of over half a mile around the Great 
Platform and every turn gives a new vista of turrets and 
spires of pagodas, silhouetted against the soft background 
of the sky. Sometimes there are festivals by night in the 
moonlight with a native orchestra of instruments of fear- 
ful and wonderful structure and sound, together with pic- 
turesque processions of priests and temple devotees. 

The Great Platform is never deserted. All night pil- 
grims sit in circles, and here and there the droning voices of 
worshippers may be heard. On the days of special cele- 
brations, thousands of Burmese in gaily coloured festival 


306 BURMA 


dress crowd the terrace, making one of the most interesting 
sights the world can show. 

The central Pagoda rises like a golden flame looming 
above the whole city, radiating its dominating influence 
over entire Burma. It shares the honour with the Temple 
of the Tooth in Kandy of being the most holy place in 
Buddhism, having among other supernal treasures, eight 
hairs of Buddha hidden at the Temple’s secret sanctuary. 

At the foot of the Pagoda hill are several monasteries 
embowered in Palmyra palms and to the south is a small 
convent for nuns, and near by is the Sule Pagoda, of lesser 
interest than the Shwe Dagon: but a conspicuous city land- 
mark, 


THE PAGODA AS A POT 
ISSUE 


During the last several years the Pagoda trustees who 
are all native Burmese, have taken advantage of the anti- 
British spirit and have sought to humiliate all Englishmen 
and foreigners by making a rule that no visitor (which, 
of course, includes the Burmese and also all other Buddhist 
worshippers), may climb the series of stairs or visit the 
Pagodas on the upper platform without removing both shoes 
and stockings. The real purpose of this is political, as the 
Pagoda trustees desire to establish in the Burman mind the 
supremacy of their religious authority over even that of the 
British government officials. 

This sometimes reacts against themselves, as in the case 
some time ago of the Prince of Siam who refused to obey 
this rule, and consequently, although he is a Buddhist, was 
not permitted to worship at the Pagoda shrines. At other 
times, they have seemed to score a signal triumph, as in the 
case of the Prince of Wales who in his recent visit was 
unable to see the Pagoda because he would not consent to 
this humiliation. 

Naturally all foreigners, and especially the English, 


Peep tt BOYCOTT 307 


greatly resent this effort on the part of the native Pagoda 
officials to make political capital out of a seeming religious 
rule. ‘The fact that this requirement has no religious sig- 
nificance is apparent in that no other Buddhist temples any- 
where in Asia require the removal of shoes and stockings, 
but only the wearing of some cloth or canvas covering over 
the shoes of the visitor. 

The British residents of Rangoon are naturally trying by 
every means in their power to discourage American and 
other foreign tourists from complying with this clever, 
political ruse in the guise of a religious sanctity. English 
residents meet visitors at every turn with warnings con- 
cerning the danger that attends the ascent of the long, filthy 
stairs and the walking over the platform area with bare 
feet, stating that smallpox and even leprosy may be con- 
tracted. Most tourists are so discouraged and even alarmed 
by these lurid stories, that only a limited number of the 
more daring ones attempt the ascent. 

It is rather natural that the sympathies of tourists, espe- 
cially Americans, should be with the British residents in 
this very proper grievance. At the same time it is an open 
question whether tourists should deny themselves one of the 
greatest privileges of travel in the Far East by helping the 
British to carry out their political boycott. 

While there is a real danger of getting blistered feet and 
possibly infection from the dust and dirt, the danger of 
smallpox, leprosy and other diseases is so remote as to be 
positively absurd. Visitors should remember, however, that 
the stairs and platform areas are exposed to the sun during 
midday and in the afternoon, and become so frightfully hot 
that it is absolute torture to try to walk on these oven- 
like expanses with bare feet. Some tourists have been 
clever enough to cover the whole bottom of their feet with 
adhesive tape which both removes the danger of possible 
infection and at the same time gives protection from the 
heat. | 

The best time to climb the stairs and visit the Pagoda 


308 BURMA 


area is either in the early forenoon before the sun has heated 
the pavement or still better at night. Even when there is 
no moon the Pagoda area can be visited, as it is lighted by 
electricity. Not only the cool pavements and the delight- 
fully pleasant evening help to make such a visit even more 
enjoyable, but the glamour of the electric lights, combined 
with the mysterious shadows, tend to make a more profound 
impression. At any rate, the author desires to encourage 
tourists to take advantage of the opportunity of seeing what 
at least might be included among the seven modern wonders 
of Asia, even though it entails the discomfort of bare feet. 
It may be hoped that this ‘stupid restriction will soon be 
removed. 

‘The Burmese booth proprietors on the Pagoda stairs are 
raising a great deal of opposition to the enforcing of this 
rule, as they find their sales have been greatly curtailed from 
the fact that it lessens the number of tourists who are usually 
the most generous purchasers and pay the highest prices. 


PRACTICAL Ra. 


The Strand Hotel is near the Pier and is very satisfac- 
tory. The Royal Hotel is also entirely comfortable, with 
good service, and is only a few blocks away, both being 
in the shopping district. ‘The Minto Mansions Hotel is 
in the Cantonments several miles away, and is comfortable 
and attractively located. 

Drinking water comes from a large reservoir lake seven- 
teen miles distant, and while it is regarded as quite safe, 
it is well all through the Far East to make inquiry at a 
Consulate or from English residents, as regards the wisdom 
of using the local water. Rather naturally, the hotel pro- 
prietors discourage drinking the local water in order to 
stimulate their trade in bottled waters. Of course it is 
foolish to put the ice, which is furnished, into bottled drinks, 
as the ice is manufactured from local water. 

Autos, carriages and gharries can be had, but the prices 





DETAIL OF 
SHWE DAGON PAGODA 


APPROACH TO SHWE DAGON PAGODA 





SHOPPING 309 


are not fixed. The latter is described by Kipling as ‘an 
absurd little carriage built to the scale of a fat Burma pony.” 

Shopping. ‘The markets and bazaars are usually owned 
by the Municipality and rented out to shopkeepers. ‘They 
are the headquarters for retail trade of every description, 
and at the same time are the centre of social life and gossip. 
The principal ones are on the Strand Road, where silks 
and lacquer work are featured, as well as in Kemmendine 
and in China Street. Some good shops are also to be found 
in Phayre and Merchant streets. 

Rubies are abundant. ‘The world’s main supply comes 
from Upper Burma. It will scratch every mineral except 
diamond, being nine-tenths as hard. A fine specimen is 
worth three times as much as a diamond of the same weight. 

Hand-woven silks, with characteristic hand embroideries, 
are a specialty. So is lacquer work in delicate patterns of 
black, green and yellow upon a background of red. Fine 
specimens of gold, and silver work, as well as wood and 
ivory carving, are on sale on Godwin Road. ‘The stated 
charge for heavily embossed bowls, purses, and other silver 
articles is usually twice their weight at the price of silver. 
The Mandalay parasols are much admired, and teakwood 
elephants with white tusks and toes, as well as bronze fig- 
ures of all kinds, are distinctively Burmese. ‘There are 
also Burmese and Chinese curios and specimens of oriental 
art. 

At Kemmendine, near the railway station, may be found 
the kalagas, a kind of blanket, red being the favourite colour, 
covered with strange figures and designs in applique work. 
They make unique hangings. Washable native wool rugs of 
white ground with: chain-stitch embroidery in gay designs 
and colours may be purchased at low prices. Women’s 
hand bags which are swung from the arm by long, broad 
straps of the same material, are distinctive of this country, 
made from cloth of silver and gay silk fabrics, as well as 
from cotton. ‘They are sometimes plain and sometimes em- 


310 BURMA 


broidered with native seeds about as large as a grain of rice, 
and arranged in artistic designs. 


SUPPLEMENTARY FACTS AND 
FIGURES 


Burma is a dependency or province under the British 
Government in India. ‘The present Governor is Sir Spen- 
cer H. Butler. It has an area of 233,707 square miles and 
a population (1921) of 13,212,192, of which 24,355 are 
European. ‘The people are mostly Buddhist, although there 
are half a million Mohammedans and 257,103 Christians. 
Its imports (1922) were 909,012,160 rupees and its exports 
2,034,217,661 rupees. (The rupee is worth 32 American 
cents.) There are 1,600 miles of Burmese railroads. 

The Reform Act of India applies to the Province of 
Burma. With the Governor are associated Ministers, an 
Executive Council and a Legislative Council of 101 mem- 
bers. The electorate numbers 2,500,000 qualified voters, 
including women. 

England declared war on Burma in 1824 because the 
Burmese undertook to invade Bengal. Having been vic- 
torious, she was paid £1,000,000 as an indemnity, and an- 
nexed Assam, but restored Southern Burma to the Burmese. 

In 1878 the notorious King Thibaw began to reign and 
his brutal practices, together with his murder in February, 
1879, of other members of the royal family, eighty in all, 
including queens, princes and officials, occasioned a strong 
British protest, especially as he interfered with the com- 
mercial rights of British subjects. Banditry became so 
common that nobody was safe, and the Government was 
completely disorganised. In 1885, when the British Gov- 
ernment invaded Burma with 10,000 men, owing to out- 
rages upon British citizens, King Thibaw called upon his 
subjects to drive the British into the sea, but the British 


FACTS AND FIGURES 311 


army entered almost without resistance and the King was 
taken prisoner and carried to Bombay where he died in 
1916. 

The Military Police are largely made up of native off- 
cers and men from India. It supplements the regular work 
of the army and provides guards for treasuries, jails, courts 
and for inland districts and villages. 

While the heat is humid, the record maximum shade 
temperature is 96° F. and the minimum 60° F. The rain- 
fall is very heavy,—in some parts reaching 200 inches an- 
nually. 

Agriculture supports three-quarters of the population. 
Considerable irrigation has already been put in operation by 
the British and extensive projects are planned. 

Burma products are jute, rice, teakwood, tea and hides, 
besides oil, tin, silver, lead, zinc, platinum, rubies, jade and 
amber, and there are 30,000 square miles of forest pre- 
serves. 

The money in Burma and India is based on the rupee, 
worth 32 American cents, each rupee being divided into 
16 annas, worth two cents each. Each anna is subdivided 
into 12 pies, but tourists do not usually trouble themselves 
with these small copper coins. 


RECENT BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Burma, H. T. White. °23, Macmillan. 

Afoot and Afloat in Burma, A. H. Williams. ’22. 

Burmese Arcady, C. M. Enriquez. ’22, Lippincott. 

In the Land of the Pagodas, R. 8S. Thurber. ’21, Southern 
Ports Ass’n. 

Fartherest Burma, ¥. K. Ward. ’21, Lippincott. 

The Glass Palace Chronicle of the Kings of Burma, G. H. 
Luce. ’23, Oxford University Press. 

Following the Pioneers, J. C. Robbins. ’22, Judson Press. 


INDIA 


Mysterious India with “the sunshine an’ the palm trees an’ 
the tinkly temple bells” 


HISTORY, AN.D DES CRP 


OB CHARNOCK, an agent of the old East India 
Company, boldly raised the red flag of Britain, in 
1690, over the mud huts of Kali-ghat, which name 

has gradually been corrupted into Calcutta. The East 
India Charter had been granted by Queen Elizabeth in 
1600, and it represented a combination of war, plunder 
and trade. 

But in a sense, Charnock was the founder of the British 
Empire in India, although the subsequent services of War- 
ren Hastings and Lord Clive put this claim into organised 
shape. By the end of the eighteenth century, England had 
driven out her Dutch and French rivals. 

After the Mutiny in 1857, England transferred the rule 
of India from the East India Company to the Crown. If it 
be true, as England’s critics assert, that the English Govern- 
ment has for its main purpose the exploitation of India in 
the interests of commerce, it is just as true that law, order 
and progress have steadily followed the British flag. If the 
development has been slow, it is because>England has had 
very rigid material upon which to work. In order to main- 
tain harmony and secure the good will of the people of 
India, England has been very chary of interfering with the 
social and religious customs of the people. ‘There are those 
who feel that she has been all too conservative on the ques- 
tions of child-marriage, the social ostracism of widows, the 
hideous religious usages, and especially the establishing of 

312 


ENGLISH GOVERNMENT 313 


an educational system that would give all the children of 
India the opportunity of at least a primary school education. 
Americans are apt to quote the case of the Philippines where 
the United States has much more rapidly developed an edu- 
cational system for all parts of the Islands. 

Two things are true, however,—the one being that the 
Philippines have a population of a little over 10,000,000, 
while India has more than thirty times as many. Naturally 
the cost would be prohibitive to try to build and equip 
schools on such a scale, and it certainly would be difficult 
to get the millions of teachers that would be necessary to 
carry on so colossal a scheme. 

The other consideration is that with such an undeveloped 
people “a little knowledge is a dangerous thing.” The 
United States is finding out this fact in the Philippines where 
she has had difficulty in restraining the childish impatience 
of the natives for absolute independence when it is patent 
to every thoughtful observer that the Philippines are still in 
the kindergarten stage. The fact that education imme- 
diately tends to produce resentment against authority is not 
an argument against education, but it is proof that neces- 
sarily such development must be a matter of evolution, and 
that during that process there must be the strong hand of 
authority. 

Lord Curzon, during his brilliant administration, solved 
many problems, one of which was the relief of famine, which 
has cost the British Government over $250,000,000. Even 
with the immense amount of amelioration given in famine 
time, it is estimated that between the years 1770 and 1900 
more than twenty-five million persons died of starvation. 

Native States. The seven hundred Native States cover 
709,515 square miles, with a total population of nearly 
70,000,000. 

At Delhi a Chamber of these Princes representing these 
autonomous States gather for mutual conferences, frequently 
asking the advice and co-operation of the British Govern- 
ment. While in reality they are despots and can decide on 


314 INDIA 


any action, either singly, or in conjunction with other inde- 
pendent States, they are very conciliatory towards the British 
Government, which constantly maintains the theoretical 
right of interference in case of disorder. 

These Princes send their sons to English schools and uni- 
versities not only in India but in Great Britain. Prince 
Ranjitsinjhi, for instance, became the foremost cricket player 
in England during his student days and is now ruling a little 
Province in India. 

The inhabitants of these Native States naturally gravitate 
to British rule, and while the Ghandi Movement has made 
much of England’s so-called ‘‘oppression,” the fact remains 
that there is a greater movement of population from these 
Native States to the British dominions than vice versa. 

After all, the people of India are of the Aryan race, and 
have always had a measure of the Aryan civilisation. “They 
worship in temples or mosques, their rulers live in palaces, 
and they have a literature, sculpture, architecture, history 
and even a culture all their own. Hence they have an 
admiration and a cultural taste for the advantages of the 
modern civilisation represented by the British Government. 

English Influence. In twenty years, up to 1918, the 
population of India increased 10 per cent.; the exports, 134 
per cent.; the cultivated acreage, 26 per cent.; the in- 
crease among female pupils, 197 per cent.; the enlargement 
of the expenditure for education, 277 per cent., and the in- 
crease of depositors in savings banks, 117 per cent. 

Law and order have been maintained in India to such an 
unusual degree that it has been a proverb that life and prop- 
erty were safer in India than in London or New York, and 
yet there has been but one British soldier for every twenty- 
four square miles and for every four thousand natives. “The 
astonishing thing is that India, which is half as large as the 
United States and has three times her population, with 721 
distinct languages and dialects, has been successfully gov- 
erned by less than 200,000 English people, including women 
and children. 


ENGLISH INFLUENCE 315 


Vast schemes of irrigation have been put into operation 
costing hundreds of millions of pounds which have redeemed 
nearly 25,000,000 acres, and as much more in part, thus 
securing great increases in food supply. This result is par- 
ticularly impressive when one realises that this is five times 
the entire cultivable acreage of the Philippine Islands. 

It can be imagined that if England withdrew her Govern- 
ment, the railroads, highways, public buildings and govern- 
ment administration would immediately deteriorate, as the 
Hindus have not, either naturally or by training, an execu- 
tive and administrative mind. It would soon be a bankrupt 
India similar to what Egypt was when England, in connec- 
tion with the powers of Europe, took over the affairs of 
Egypt in 1882. 

What Buddha renounced in wealth and power Mohammed 
seized, and it is almost certain that if England withdrew, 
the Mohammedans who hold the Hindus in utter contempt, 
would immediately assume control, and would inaugurate 
a reign of cruelty that would be a reminder of the Moslem 
conquests of a few centuries ago. 

Not only the financial and official class of Hindus, but 
also missionary converts, Parsees, merchants, bankers, and 
prominent leaders like Mrs. Annie Besant and ‘Tagore, rec- 
ognise (even as Botha and Smuts did in connection with 
South Africa after the Boer War) that the necessary policy 
for India is a British administration. 


ian (PEOPLE 


The Hindu people impress the visitor as woe-begone and 
melancholy. One never hears a laugh and rarely sees even 
a deprecating smile, while the children have not learned 
anything like real or make-believe play, and even a girl with 
a doll is rarely seen. ‘he boys in the schools, although very 
studious in order to get the coveted prizes which give promise 
of a government position, learn rather by rote than by show- 
ing any power of initiative or originality of thought, and 


316 INDIA 


the college men are not usually physically capable of enter- 
ing into strenuous athletics. 

The Hindu is dull, listless, half-alive, almost hopelessly 
incapable of doing things in a new way, and without in- 
ventiveness or adaptability. 

It is nearly impossible to get the natives to change their 
customs. Efforts have been made to teach them to use 
modern ploughs and to help them acquire the ownership of 
them, but no matter how clear the demonstration may be 
of their greater efficiency, both in covering more ground and 
in producing increased crops, the Indian persists in using 
his plough of forked sticks and an iron point. When a 
certain contractor introduced wheelbarrows, the labourers 
filled the wheelbarrows with dirt and stone according to 
orders, but insisted on carrying them on their heads, together 
with their contents, as though they were baskets such as they 
were accustomed to use. 

The streets present a very kaleidoscopic appearance with 
the commingling of many races in characteristic costumes, 
the white robes and painted foreheads of the Hindus, and 
the women in their gay-coloured saris and clinking silver 
jewellery. Even the oxen have painted horns and wear glass 
or metal necklaces. ‘The men, with their gaunt bodies and 
incredibly thin legs, their sharp features, and their deep-set 
restless eyes, and also the stunted women, many of them 
looking like eight-year-old children, produce a most depress- 
ing effect upon the observer. 


, 


HINTS TO TRAVELLERS 


Sightseeing Hours. In order to do as much sightseeing 
as possible before 10:30 AM. and after 4:30 P.M., a special 
chota-hazri is usually served at 6:00 A.M., consisting of 
coffee (or tea), rolls, and fruit. Carriages are then usually 
taken by 6:30 a.M. for sightseeing, the regular breakfast 
being served on the return at 10:00 or 10:30 A.M. Lunch 
is served between 1:00 and 2:00 P.M., allowing an interval 





3 MUZZLED OXEN TRAMPLING GRAIN 
CHARACTERISTIC INIVA CHILDHOOD 





meses hb IN INDIA R14 


for rest or sleep before carriages are again provided at 3:30 
or 4:00 P.M., returning at 7:30 or 8:00 P.M. for dinner. 

This programme gives the usual number of hours for 
sightseeing with the advantage of having them in the cool 
of the early forenoon and the late afternoon when the 
weather is delightful. The hours between 11 a.m. and 4 
p. M. should be spent indoors, where the large “‘punka” fans 
and cool drinks make the traveller fairly comfortable. ‘The 
heat during this interval outside becomes almost unbearable. 
It is well to wear a topee, or cork hat, to dress in light- 
weight linen, or thin silk, keep out of the sun in the middle 
of the day, and never walk when one can ride. Carrying 
out these rules, visitors will find India and other tropical 
countries quite comfortable even in March and April, more 
so than Boston, New York or Washington during the heated 
summer spells. ‘The fact of the slight humidity and the 
almost invariably cool nights helps to make the tropics quite 
endurable. 

It should be added that while December and January are 
often mentioned as the coolest season and most desirable for 
travel in India, it has the disadvantage not only of heavy 
rains, but also of extremely cold nights, it being not unusual 
to find ice in the bathtubs of the unheated India hotels, 
making the cold less bearable than the heat which comes 
several months later. It is also very inadvisable to visit 
Darjeeling during the winter months. 

In crossing India all bedding and towels for sleeping cars 
must be provided by the passenger who travels independently, 
or by the Cruise management of conducted parties. The 
same is true of native servants, who must be hired to accom- 
pany the traveller, special quarters on the train being pro- 
vided for them by the railway company. It is the duty of 
the servants to make up the beds each morning and to put 
away each person’s bedding in a hold-all, which is tagged 
with the passenger’s name so as to prevent the exchange of 
bedding. 


It is also the duty of the servants to serve a chota-hazri 


318 INDIA 


in the early morning, to help pack and unpack personal 
baggage, to act as porters, and to give any information de- 
sired. It is well for those travelling independently to try 
to secure servants who speak some English, and they may 
be obtained sometimes through the railway company. 

Shopping. India has some fine and characteristic work 
in pottery, metal, wood and ivory carving, jewellery, damas- 
cene and lacquer work, native weaving, silk brocade, Indian 
(Chican) embroidery, carpets, idols, tiger skins, hammered 
and inlaid brass, silver and gold filagree, and Kashmir 
shawls. It should be remembered that modern workman- 
ship is not as painstaking as that done in former years. 

Money. Indian money is based on the rupee, worth 32 
American cents; each rupee has sixteen annas worth two 
cents each, and each anna is subdivided into smaller copper 
coins. ‘There are silver and nickel coins of one rupee, half 
rupees, four-anna and two-anna pieces, and a half anna and 
smaller coins in copper. 

The postage on a letter to the United States and Europe 
is two and a half annas for the first ounce and one and a half 
annas for each additional ounce. 


GANDHIISM 


Mahatma Gandhi has become such an epoch-making 
figure in the recent history of India that he must be taken 
into account in all discussions of its modern problems. He 
was born in October, 1869, in the native state of Porbander, 
where his father was the Chief Minister, and at the age 
of twelve was married to a child wife. Educated in a 
British college in India, he later went to England, where he 
studied law and was admitted to the bar. He came under 
the influence of Tolstoy, especially in his “Address to a 
Hindu,” which covers the whole scheme of resistance to alien 
rule by ‘‘non-co-operation.” 

He volunteered for ambulance service in the Boer War, 
after which an opportunity came to him as a lawyer in South 
Africa to make a series of legal fights to permit Hindu 


GIA, Doll I 319 


immigrants to own their own homes, suffering four short 
imprisonments because of his fanatical methods. He came 
back to India a hero in the eyes of his people and imme- 
diately began his propaganda against British Government and 
British law. At first he was inclined to be conciliatory, hold- 
ing frequent conferences with government representatives, 
but gradually his fanatical temperament began to have full 
sway. Although a believer in the four essential castes, he 
is opposed to the degenerate aspects of modern Hinduism. 

He is the Tolstoy of India, satisfied with the barest sub- 
sistence for himself and family. His eldest son, a merchant 
in Calcutta, is not in sympathy with him and his movement, 
but a second son is co-operating as a teacher of Gandhiism. 
among the people. 

The writer had the opportunity of having a personal in- 
terview with Gandhi near Bombay in the Spring of 1924, 
and was impressed with his gentleness and evident sincerity. 
He speaks English with little or no accent and reveals the 
mental attitude of a philosopher with the ability of making 
the most subtle distinctions and of a poet, clothing his 
thought in the mantle of romance and optimism. He is, 
however, a dreamer who seeks to make his facts accord 
with his wishes, rather than the practical statesman. One 
cannot but admire his calm, thoughtful, unimpassioned 
spirit. He sat on the floor, naked except for a loin cloth, 
his head closely shaven except for a wisp of hair falling from 
the back of his head down over his shoulders. His main 
contention is that materialism has outstripped the higher 
ideals, and that the modern greed for wealth and pleasure 
has stifled the real values and simplicities of life. 

Gandhi is a man of small and emaciated figure. He is 
not an orator, does not indulge in flattery or special pleading 
with his audience. His head is disproportionately small to 
the rest of his body. He has a squat face with a long nose 
and his features are crowded into the lower part of his face. 
He has a melancholy expression with eyes deep set and 
brooding, but lighting up beautifully when he speaks. 


320 INDIA 


PRINCIPLES OF GANDHIISM 


Gandhi, although the apostle of non-co-operation and 
non-resistance, has publicly acknowledged that his pro- 
gramme of principles cannot at present be carried out, and 
the political leadership for the time has passed into the 
hands of the aggressive Swarajist Party. Yet he is revered 
by nearly all the people of India, and the Swarajist Party is 
built upon the Gandhi Foundation. A clear understanding 
of the Indian situation should include all the Gandhi the- 
ories, which are hereby presented as they were promulgated 
politically until January, 1925, and are still held by many 
Indians. , 

Gandhi publishes his own paper, “Young India,’ and 
practically all his printed propaganda, sent broadcast over 
the country, in the English language. Less than four per 
cent. of the people of India are intelligent enough in any 
way to grasp his principles and many of these cannot read 
English, yet it would be impracticable to make an appeal 
in any other language, as otherwise it would need to be 
printed in scores of Indian dialects. At the same time 
Gandhi professes to speak for the whole of India as though 
it were unified in language, intelligence, and capacity. 

He is also opposed to British agricultural methods and the 
introduction or use of irrigation systems. He believes that 
with primitive homespun clothing and the agricultural tools 
and the customs of past ages, India would be happier in 
leading a primitive life, especially if delivered from the 
presence of British influence and contact with all foreigners. 

There are two words that serve as slogans in this propa- 
ganda. ‘The one is “swaraj,” or self-rule. ‘The other is 
“swadeshi,” or homespun clothing, as the visible emblem of 
Non-co-operation, although this word includes a widespread 
boycott against all British goods. Gandhi himself presided 
over great sacrificial bonfires of imported cloth at the Bom- 
bay seashore, his followers wearing the homespun white 
“Gandhi” caps, which distinguish “Non-co-operators.” In 





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order to carry out this campaign of “‘swaraj’’ and “swadeshi’” 
he and his followers have sought to raise a fund of $3,000,- 
000, to be used for publicity and the purchase of spinning 
wheels, but the result has been negligible. 

Gandhi asks his followers to take an absolute anti-British 
position. “They must pledge themselves not to eat British 
food or buy a British-made article. ‘They aim to abolish 
railroads, irrigation systems, manufacturing plants, educa- 
tional organisations, doctors, law courts and all the machin- 
ery of modern civilisation in India, so that the whole country 
may revert to the most primitive conditions. 

These disciples take eight distinct vows: truth seeking, 
non-killing, fearlessness, celibacy even though married, pov- 
erty, self-denial in food, opposition to the English Govern- 
ment and an effort to break down the caste regulation against 
the fifty million so-called “Untouchables,” or outcasts. 

Gandhi has inaugurated a passive civil disobedience and 
a non-payment of taxes to the hated “Satanic” Government, 
yet many of his followers continue to vote, and Hindu legis- 
lators have almost without exception continued their active 
relation to the Government. He sought to establish a boy- 
cott against all foreign goods and endeavoured to set 
everybody spinning and weaving hand-made cloth, he 
himself giving much of his time to spinning even when 
engaged in formal conferences. He is against every form 
of the new industrialism. According to his view it is ma- 
chinery that has impoverished India. Although he himself 
is a finished product of British education, he speaks of “the 
hallucinations of schools and colleges.’ His ‘‘national’’ 
schools which he desires to substitute have not materialised 
and the British schools have felt the reaction very slightly. 
He and his followers refuse to vote or to appeal to English 
courts. Scarcely any Hindu lawyers, however, have aban- 
doned the law courts at his request. 

One of his rather effective arguments for non-resistance 
is the high cost of militarism in India, in view of the fact 
that the British Government in 1920 spent £60,000,000 for 


322 INDIA 


military purposes, out of a budget of £145,000,000, in order 
to carry on an army in which there are 77,500 Britishers 
and over 200,000 native soldiers. Considering the great 
size of India, its diverse problems and its irresponsible people, 
it does not seem, however, as though this money were use- 
lessly spent. 

One of Gandhi’s reasonable grievances is that in spite of 
the fact that Great Britain’s system of the administration of 
justice is remarkably fair to the natives (giving to the hum- 
blest “untouchable” the right of defence and the advan- 
tages of law similar to that given an Englishman), the high 
cost of legal redress is such as to make it impossible for poor 
natives to defend themselves against injustice and aggression. 

Gandhi’s Nationalistic Movement welcomes the co-opera- 
tion of women and supports prohibition. It desires to cor- 
rect the Punjab grievances and it insists on the punishment 
of the English aggressors at Amritzar, in spite of the fact 
that the British Government has repudiated the unfortunate 
outrages, and retired General Dyer, who was responsible. 


DANGERS ARIS ENGR 
GANDHIISM AND’A ““FREE Tis 


Lord Reading, Governor General of India, has been in- 
clined to take the cautious and “easy” attitude toward 
Gandhi and his followers. On the occasion, however, of the 
Prince of Wales’ arrival in Bombay, the ‘“‘non-violent’”’ Non- 
co-operators became violent, with the result of fifty-eight 
deaths and four hundred wounded (including four English- 
men and one American). At Chauri Chaura the mob drove 
native policemen into a police station, which was then set 
on fire and twenty-five of the police were burned alive. 

Gandhi himself openly disavowed his responsibility for 
these outbreaks of violence and reproached those of his fol- 
lowers who had been participants. He imposed a fast of 
five days upon himself for his people’s sin. | 

There was also in this connection an “hartal,” or “closing 


DANGERS 323 


shop” movement which the Nationalists had arranged to 
take place on the arrival of the Prince of Wales in Calcutta. 
One hundred and fifty thousand shops were closed in the 
region around Calcutta and to a lesser extent elsewhere, 
when the Prince passed in procession. 

One of the menacing features is that there are, according 
to report, 9,000,000 industrial workers who have formed 
themselves into trade unions and are in a distinctly truculent 
mood. 

In view of the new attitude of violence which these sup- 
posedly non-resisting Gandhiists displayed, the Government 
began to take very stringent action. Within a few weeks 
after the arrival of the Prince in Calcutta, four thousand 
persons were arrested there. At Bombay, the leaders of the 
riots were also arrested, and sentences of imprisonment, vary- 
ing from two months to two years, were passed on all 
offenders. | 

Gandhi’s doctrine of non-violence has in reality kindled 
hate. It is hard to develop self-control and passion at the 
same time. It has led to the horrors of Malabar in the 
south and the horrors of Chauri Chaura in the north. The 
slaughter of the Hindus at Moplah was vastly more fraught 
with atrocity than was Amritzar, and it was instigated by 
Moslems. 

Another danger lies in the fact that the educated Hindus 
have too little outlet for the education they have received. 
Over twelve thousand students graduate from Indian col- 
leges every year and comparatively few can get the coveted 
government positions, as the Hindus who are thus placed 
rarely resign. Law, journalism and even medicine are all 
hopelessly overcrowded in view of the fact that the over- 
whelming mass of people have not reached the stage where 
such services are in demand. 

The difficulty is that the British Government has put too 
much stress upon the government colleges of Calcutta, Bom- 
bay, Madras, and others, and too little upon manual and 
industrial training. In America, the education of Indians, 


324 INDIA 


negroes and other backward people suffered the same result, 
until the development of the Hampton Institute at Virginia, 
and of the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, showed the 
better way. ‘The British Government in India should take 
steps immediately for a widespread training in agriculture, 
the trades, and expert factory work. Hindus, with a college 
education and no way of earning their living therewith, 
become really dangerous in the community, as their discon- 
tent leads them to engage in propaganda antagonistic to the 
Government, and to align themselves with such movements 
as Gandhiism. ‘The fact is, Gandhi’s largest single asset is 
his hold on students and college men of dreamy and idealistic 
temperament. 

Taken as a whole, conditions in India are perhaps more 
disturbed than at any time since the Sepoy mutiny. It should 
be remembered, however, that the lack of unity and the 
natural inertness of the Hindu people make these disturb- 
ing factors mentioned of less immediate menace than they 
would be with people in the Occident. 

As the climax of the new government severity, Gandhi 
himself was arrested in March, 1922, and sentenced to six 
years’ imprisonment. “The immediate effect was to idealise 
Gandhi in the minds of the people at large. A picture 
poster circulated among the Gandhi adherents makes his 
figure conspicuous in the centre and around him on either 
side are arranged six other great men of the world, including 
Buddha, Krishna, Lenin, Christ, ‘Tolstoy, and, strange to 
say, McSweeney of Ireland! 

In February, 1924, Gandhi was taken seriously ill with 
appendicitis and his life was saved by the skill of an English 
surgeon. The English Government immediately gave him 
his liberty on parole and a Bombay merchant gave him the 
use of a comfortable summer house on the seashore near 
Bombay in which to convalesce. It was here that the 
writer had a most impressive audience with him. 

The truth is, that the Gandhi movement is altogether so 
vague and impractical, and so entirely reactionary in its 


Peet ARREST + 325 


reversal to primitive conditions, that it seems to have begun 
to lose its power, not only with the more intelligent leaders 
but with the people generally. Besides, the Hindus are 
naturally too apathetic to maintain any consistent or con- 
secutive adherence to any fixed purpose. Gandhi also lacked 
the power of developing any system of organisation that 
would carry on any aggressive and growing campaign. 


Pe rep PTES ENCOUNTERED 
reer Rk EVN DLA 


Ignorance. ‘The principal difficulty is the fact that at 
least ninety-five per cent. of all the population of India is 
illiterate, and the rather abstract principles of Nationalism 
can make little appeal to the limited intelligence of the 
people. Of course there is potency in the word “swaraj”’ or 
self-rule, and at times the ignorant masses are raised to a 
state of hysterical excitement as they hear impassioned ap- 
peals for self-determination, and have pictured before them 
the supposed Utopia which would result from the realisa- 
tion of self-rule. 

Lack of Political Unity. ‘The fact that there is no po- 
litical unity, except that which Britain has established among 
the various provinces in India, would make co-operation 
among Gandhi's followers extremely difficult. These provin- 
cial prejudices are very strong, and before Great Britain came 
into India there were continual strifes and wars between the 
various sections. “The fact also that there are several hun- 
dred different languages and distinct dialects to be found in 
India with no common ground of language in which to make 
a unified appeal complicates the situation tremendously. 

Religious Antipathies. One of the greatest single fac- 
tors in preventing any unification of India is that of the 
racial and religious antipathies which are so widespread. 
Although seventy per cent. of the population are Hindus, 
there are nearly 70,000,000 Mohammedans. The aversions 
between Hindus and Mohammedans are intense beyond be- 


326 INDIA 


lief. The fact that the Mohammedans at Moplah in the 
South of India, after having killed seven white people, 
attacked and killed thousands of Hindus, has been referred 
to. During the summer of 1923, there were similar on- 
slaughts upon the Hindus by the Mohammedans because the 
Hindus, for instance, raised an issue that a Mohammedan 
procession had cut away some of the low branches of sacred 
bo trees which interfered with their banners. 

This illustrates only one of scores of trifles out of which 
great religious conflicts arise. Gandhi himself, cognisant 
of these conditions, has tried to bridge the gulf between 
them. He has eaten at the same table with Mohammedans 
(although this is against his own profession of caste alle- 
giance), and has succeeded in getting a measure of appar- 
ent harmony among several of the leaders on both sides, but 
the antagonisms are so deep and instinctive that an outbreak 
is imminent at all times. 

In addition to these religious hatreds, there is also the 
problem of the ten million Hill People who are Animists 
and five million Christians who do not easily get on common 
ground, besides Sikhs, Jains, and Parsees. In the north of 
India the Hindus and Mohammedans, for instance, joined 
together to attack the Parsees at the time of the arrival of 
the Prince of Wales. 

There is also a strife between these racial and religious 
groups as to who should control the councils which are 
directing the movement, as well as to the method to be 
pursued,—whether their ends can be best attained by a quiet 
spread of principles or whether they should seek to enforce 
their desired reforms by organised attacks from without. 

The Obstacle of Caste. ‘The main difficulty which per- 
haps overshadows all others is the caste system which sepa- 
rates the Hindus by invisible but insurmountable walls. 
Gandhi himself upholds the caste system, while in theory he 
preaches brotherly unity. Gandhi lost his own caste by eat- 
ing with the Ali brothers, who are leaders of the Moham- 
medans. “The Hindus of his own caste revere Gandhi and 
approved his efforts to thus unite Hindus and Mohamme- 


SESTACLES 327 


dans, but their stern principles of caste forbade them per- 
sonally to associate with Gandhi. It is not necessary here to 
go into the intricacies and absurdities of the caste system, but 
it is well known that those of one caste will not in any way 
associate with others or allow themselves to touch persons 
of other castes, or eat with them, or be joined in the same 
group. While the English administration has sought to 
overcome some of the extreme rigours of this system, and 
the introduction of railroads and modern methods of business 
have helped to break down barriers somewhat, at the same 
time with the great mass of people it is a fetish which is 
held to with fanatical loyalty. 

‘The worst phase of the caste system is the fact that there 
is a great host of outcasts lower than the lowest of the four 
castes, usually spoken of as the ‘‘Untouchables.” ‘There are 
at least 50,000,000 of these people, their children not being 
permitted school privileges with others. They are not 
allowed to draw water from public wells or even to walk 
upon public highways. ‘To have the shadow of one of them 
fall upon a Hindu, though he be of the serving class him- 
self, is considered contamination and requires special puri- 
fying ablutions. Whenever a person of any one of the four 
regular castes sees an ‘‘Untouchable’” he utters a peculiar 
warning cry that will keep him at a distance varying from 
twenty-four to seventy-four feet, according to the caste of 
the one giving warning. 

Think of a country trying to govern itself in which such 
a system is enforced almost to the nth degree, making it im- 
possible for any sort of unity or co-operation! 

Antagonistic Independent States. The independent 
Indian States with about 70,000,000 of people are as a whole 
absolutely opposed to attacks upon the British Government. 
These States pay taxes to the British Government, furnish 
armies for it when needed, and accept and even ask for 
British advice and co-operation. ‘They are so opposed to 
anything that suggests the National Movement, that Gandhi 
has never been allowed to cross any of their borders. 

Non-Support of Hindu Leaders. Another insuperable 


328 INDIA 


objection is the fact that intelligent Hindus, except such 
as are seeking political aggrandisement by joining with 
Nationalism, are not favourable to the movement. Most of 
the Brahmins realise that English control is necessary both 
to the peace and prosperity of India, and that the with- 
drawal of the British Government would immediately spell 
chaos and civil strife. “The Hindus who are in commercial 
life also recognise that it would be a death blow to business 
in every form to adopt the Gandhi doctrines. Among them 
any co-operation with the Nationalist Movement is more ap- 
parent than real. It was difficult to be openly antagonistic 
when students and others, who are associated with Gandhi, 
act as pickets in front of shops of merchants who will not 
agree to boycott English goods, and shout warning to all 
possible purchasers not to enter. “This is a powerful method 
of intimidation and many merchants pledged themselves not 
to sell English goods, but the promise was broken as soon as 
the spy was out of the way. It is as Gandhi himself said, 
“Moneyed men among the Hindus support British rule, as 
their interest is bound up with its stability.” 

On December 24, 1924, Gandhi made a political capitu- 
lation before the Indian National Conference, and agreed 
that Non-Co-operation should for the present be suspended 
and that the Swarajists should be allowed to sit and act in 
legislative assemblies. He announced, however, that he 
would continue his effort to have his principles made effective 
in the life of the people; that he would seek to make manual 
work the only qualification for franchise, simplify and 
cheapen court procedure, curtail military expenditures, abol- 
ish revenue from liquor and opium, and reduce all salaries 
to conform to an Indian basis. He would also cancel most 
of the franchises given to foreigners and make all offices of 
the administration open to natives. 

Mr. George Joseph, who was one of Gandhi’s strongest 
supporters, and the acting editor of “Young India” during 
Gandhi’s imprisonment and subsequent illness, resigned. 

Mr. C. R. Das did not accept Non-Co-operation and 


GCRSTACLES 329 


Non-Resistance, but instead believed that his Swarajist party 
should get the largest possible representation in the various 
legislatures and councils and thus make every effort to 
obstruct legislation. It made the political situation de- 
plorable, and for a time in Bengal the English Government 
could get no majority, so that even salaries could not be 
paid except by decree of the Central Government. 

By a special manifesto, however, in April, 1925, Mr. 
Das announced that he and his Swarajist party were ready 
to abandon the tactics of obstruction because they found 
that they are alienating other influential Indian parties. He 
announced that their hope in the future would be to win 
“Swaraj” for India by co-operating with Great Britain, in 
the meantime working for a full Dominion status. 

Das turned over his considerable personal fortune to found 
a girls’ school and orphanage and showed his sincerity by 
living in a very humble way. Unfortunately for the Indian 
Cause, he died at Darjeeling in June, 1925. It will be 
dificult for the Swarajists to find another leader so able 
and so constructive. 

After all, the Indians are children and must be taken care 
of. Although of the Aryan race, they have a slave psychol- 
ogy, owing to centuries of oppression and misrule, and have 
little administrative or executive ability. Although educated 
Indians develop a remarkably idealistic and poetic type of 
mind and often become experts in drawing fine metaphysical 
and philosophical distinctions, very few have shown the 
grasp and business capacity which would enable them to 
assume large responsibilities. Even the educated “babu” 
necessarily remains a subordinate, filling a small niche in 
official and commercial circles. Great Britain is absolutely 
necessary to the development of India and the welfare of her 
conglomerate people. 


fost KRUCTIVE INELUENCES 


It should be remembered that these revolutionary move- 
ments do not always represent the real feeling of India as a 


330 INDIA 


whole toward Great Britain. ‘There were nearly a half 
million Indians in the World War, and they proved them- 
selves good and trustworthy soldiers. “Those who returned 
from service in Europe have become too intelligent not to 
realise Britain’s power and position in the world, and the 
hopelessness of India’s becoming a secure and stable country, 
if independent of Great Britain. 

The Liberal Federation is a new organisation under the 
leadership of Pandit Maladiya, which is taking the place of 
the gradually discarded Non-co-operative Movement and 
British boycott. It emphasises the need and value of Indian 
mills and factory looms, and is endeavouring to increase and 
improve the school system. It encourages irrigation, medical 
work, and all forms of economic efficiency. It urges con- 
stitutional methods for redressing grievances and a self- 
government which will make India an equal partner with 
Great Britain. In other words, it is unlike the Nationalist 
Movement in that it is constructive rather than destructive, 
and positive instead of negative. 

The Montagu-Chelmsford reforms, which the British 
Government has itself inaugurated, have produced a new 
‘Constitution. Under these reforms the new National Par- 
liament of India met February 9, 1921, and many of the 
local affairs of the different Provinces have been put under 
the direction of this Parliament, subject, of course, to the 
revision or veto of the British Government. ‘This general 
control covers nearly all of the public activities such as 
agriculture, education, police, prisons, courts, sanitation, 
water supply and similar functions. 

The movement which Ghandi inaugurated has had a cer- 
tain quickening and educative value, and has helped to give 
‘self-consciousness and spiritual discernment to the people of 
India. All fair-minded observers will recognise, however, 
that Great Britain has maintained a just and humane rule 
in India, and that on the whole the “white man’s burden” 
has been nobly borne. Without Great Britain, India would 
have continued to be torn by internecine feuds and would. 


RELIGIONS 331 


have remained the victim of chaos and starvation. If Great 
Britain should entirely withdraw, India would rapidly revert 
to her former distressed condition, or be taken over by a 
Power, that might not deal so generously with the people. 


Ree eGlONsS OF INDIA 


As the religions of India have so tended to determine the 
thought and character of the people and have so largely 
helped to shape their history, it is well to give a brief résumé 
of those that are most prominent, 


HINDUISM 


The first form of Hinduism was Vedism, or the worship 
of Nature, the chief gods being rain, fire, and the sun. The 
Veda consists of the four books of songs and prayers which 
constituted its worship. 7 

Brahminism. Then came Brahminism, introducing the 
idea of one universal essence or spirit which pervades every- 
thing, all that is seen being its manifestations. ‘This is an 
early form of Pantheism, and was developed in the Brah- 
manas, or sacred books, giving the ritual of sacrifices and 
ceremonies to be used by the Brahmins or priests. “These 
go back as far as 1000 B.C. 

This was followed by the Code of Manu, about 300 a. D., 
dividing Hindus into four classes or castes, which is the 
beginning of the caste system that has proved such a curse 
to India. The priests taught that they themselves came 
from the mouth of the god Brahma, while the warriors came 
from the arms, the tradesmen and farmers from the thighs, 
and the sudras, or serfs, from the feet. 

From Brahmanism came a later development of Hinduism 
which made the original god Brahma to be revealed in three 
persons, namely: Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, 
and Siva the destroyer and reproducer. ‘This idea of a 
trinity is in itself so suggestive of the Christian doctrine 
that it would be a reasonable system of belief. 


332 LAN Dad 


The original Vedic documents contain much that is noble 
and give expression to some high ethical ideals. ‘The 
Bhagabat Gita says, “Find full reward of doing right in 
right.” “Work is more excellent than idleness. ‘The body’s 
life proceeds not, lacking work.” The prose epics, the 
Mahabarata and the Ramayana, have many noble senti- 
ments. . 

The Vedic ritual has an element of Ancestor Worship 
and the family ceremonialism in connection with births, 
marriage, death and offerings to the dead, has still a con- 
spicuous place in Hindu life. ‘There is a minute ritual 
observance, even in washing, eating and dressing. In fact, 
religion is almost divorced from ethics and has become a 
punctilious attention to the minutiz of religious formulas, 
the complete absorption in which tends to sterilise the spir- 
itual and ethical life of the individual. 

Some of the intelligent Brahmins of the present day still 
hold to the ancient and purer conception of religious wor- 
ship, but this is true of a very small proportion. ‘The great 
body of Brahmin priests are teachers of the most grotesque 
and grovelling modern superstitions. 

The Brahma-Somaj Society has arisen out of the fact that 
the minds of Hindu students with scientific training have 
been unable to accept the modern form of Hinduism, and 
hence there was established a spiritual deism shorn of all 
gross and degrading features. Its members believe in one 
communing God, reverence Christ, although not accepting 
His deity, accept the ethical elements in the Christian re- 
ligion, and militate against polygamy, idolatry, caste, child 
marriage, the ostracism of widows and intemperance. ‘The 
celebrated Indian poet, Tagore, is one of the leaders. Many 
Hindus of culture and position are adherents. ‘The results 
of Christian education and the study of the Bible are plainly 
indicated. ' 

The so-called “swami” who visit this country and estab- 
lish Hindu centres of thought and modes of Hindu worship 
largely represent this cultured product of India. ‘They are 





JAIN TEMPLE AT CALCUTTA 
BATHING IN THE GANGES AT BENARES 


a 





HINDUISM 333 


wont to cull certain passages from the sacred books express- 
ing the mystic poetry and idealism of India, together with 
the Christian ideals which they have received in their English 
education, and clothe them in the charming metaphors and 
poetic figures of speech which are native to the Indian mind. 
‘They are apparently able in this way to make a strong case 
for the nobility and, as they often claim, the superiority of 
the Hindu religion. A visit to India, however, with an 
opportunity to see at first hand the age-long evil effects of 
Hinduism will tend to cure even the most enthusiastic con- 
vert and devotee. 

Modern Hinduism. ‘This is a degenerate form of the 
original Brahminism, with a debasing conception of mani- 
fold wives and children of the trinity who are also gods, 
some of them with the vilest attributes. This has been 
accompanied by a host of superstitions that have scarcely a 
parallel in the history of religions. 

The worst of all is Kali or Durga (the wife of Siva), who 
is the ‘Terrible One, the thirster for blood, a monster with 
a grotesquely horrible face, and a crimson tongue hanging 
to her waist, to whom formerly sacrifices of children were 
made until the law forbade it, goats now being used as sub- 
stitutes. 

There has also developed a degrading worship of animals, 
in which cows, crocodiles, tigers, peacocks, parrots, elephants, 
monkeys, and even rats, are accounted sacred, and get their 
mead of worship. ‘The most grotesque forms of superstition 
- are widespread. One sees so-called ‘‘holy men” undergoing 
the most cruel forms of self-torture, such as making their 
beds on a framework of spikes, holding up one arm night and 
day for years until it is absolutely shrivelled, or making a 
home on the little platform several feet square on top of a 
pole, and refusing to descend to the earth, any offerings of 
food being raised to them from below. Or one may see a 
Brahmin priest leading a malformed cow with a fifth leg 
growing out of its back, promising the faithful, whom he 
allows to touch it for money, all sorts of supposititious bless- 


334 LN Da 


ings. Such a religious teacher and guide is called a guru, 
and no matter how ignorant and filthy he may be, orthodox 
Hindus submit themselves to him and make him their guide 
and adviser. 

Transmigration of Souls. ‘The doctrine of the Karma, 
or transmigration of souls, teaches that the penalty of evil 
must be suffered through a series of existences, there being 
eight million four hundred thousand different incarnations, 
mostly in the form of animals, through which a soul may 
pass. The individual can abbreviate the terrible purgatory 
of these limitless forms of being, by expiatory suffering and 
by the securing of “‘merit’’ in this life. 

The Caste System. ‘The doctrine of caste (the word is 
derived from the Latin “castus,’’ meaning purity of blood) 
is the greatest bane of Hinduism, and the most terrible curse 
of India. ‘The four original caste distinctions,—priestly, 
military, trading, and serving,—have gradually been sub- 
divided into 1,886 distinct castes, each Hindu and his chil- 
dren to the nth generation being bound to his own particular 
subdivision of caste, and being forbidden to associate with 
persons of other castes. “The most terrible phase of this 
unspeakable system is the fact that there are in India nearly 
fifty million “Untouchables” already referred to. 

The doctrine of caste not only differentiates Hindus them- 
selves but makes outcasts of all other people, even of the 
highest type of Europeans. It is not usually understood 
that to a Hindu, although he be of the lowest serving caste, 
the slightest touch of a foreigner means contamination, even 
though he should be the Governor General of India, and 
this defilement can be removed only by ceremonial ablutions. 

The effect of the caste system, in making it practically 
impossible for a man to rise above his caste, or to marry 
outside his caste, is to destroy all ambition and initiative, and 
to make him the utter slave of the most grovelling and 
degraded conception of religion which has ever entered into 
the heart of man. If it were not for this ghastly incubus 
of a religion that fosters castes and degraded conceptions of 


ed J INGD OS 335 


life, the Hindu would respond rapidly to the most scientific 
forms of modern culture. “The fact of having a unique 
combination of Aryan mentality and Oriental mysticism 
makes the Hindu by nature poetical, esthetic and artistic. 
He loves music and is easily stirred by recitations from the 
great epics, and when educated shows a remarkably philo- 
sophic and dialectic type of mind, although the constructive 
and executive elements are lacking. 

The conspicuous mark that is outlined in colour upon the 
forehead of Hindus is the special symbol of different gods, 
each Hindu usually selecting the special one of the gods to 
whom he devotes his worship. The perpendicular Vishnu 
marks are made with clay, and the horizontal Siva marks 
are made with cow-dung ashes. 

Hindu women can obtain position in this life, and in the 
coming series of incarnations, only through abject obedience 
to father or husband. ‘They have no opportunity or hope 
of ever reaching Nirvana except through the relationships 
they have with men. The most hopeless of all Hindu women 
are the twenty-six million widows who are not permitted 
by their religious tabu to re-marry, and who become veritable 
derelicts and social outcasts. As a very small per cent. of 
women in India have any education whatever, those who 
have being largely the limited number who are in Christian 
schools, they are particularly ignorant and superstitious. 
Think of the degradation of a woman prostrating herself 
before a cow in adoration, and then touching its tail to her 
forehead by way of worship, thereby expecting some par- 
ticular blessing. “The Nautch, or dancing girls, connected 
with the temples, are simply the creatures of the priests. 
There are tens of thousands of girls as young as five or six 
years of age, who are simply given over to a life of shame 
in the name of religion. 

Taken as a whole, Hinduism means polytheism and the 
grossest superstitions, the paralysing caste system, the degra- 
dation of women, the social ostracism of widows, child mar- 


336 INDIA 


riage, the worship of animals, religious mendicancy, and 
hopeless prejudice and mental paralysis. Every religion, as 
a rule, has admirable precepts and religious conceptions that 
deserve the respect of broad-minded people, but Hinduism 
as administered by the present-day Brahmin priests has 
scarcely one redeeming point, and is merely an unspeakable 
abomination of caste, filth, blood and degradation, 


BUDDHISM 


Gautama Buddha was the first conspicuous religious 
teacher to preach the brotherhood of man enjoining love and 
charity for all, militating against class distinctions, sacri- 
fices and penances. He enunciated self-control and the over- 
coming of anger, ignorance and lust, together with the 
attainment of perfect wisdom, and the eventual perfect peace 
of Nirvana. For forty-four years, Buddha taught in the 
so-called Deer Park at Benares, now known as Sarnath. 
He died 543 B.c. at the age of eighty. His teachings are 
embodied in certain Cingalese and Pali texts which have 
been translated by such great Oriental scholars as Dr. Max 
Miller and Dr. Rhys Davids. Although Buddha never 
claimed a divine origin, or the power of working miracles, 
he has gradually become the supreme god of Buddhism, no 
other god being recognised. 

Buddhism teaches that life is made up of suffering which 
is caused by desire. ‘The hope of attaining Nirvana, or the 
merging into the Infinite, is to renounce desire, resulting in 
a dimunition of suffering. A holy contemplation of Buddha, 
who is symbolised by the innumerable statues, tends to limit 
the cycle of suffering existences, which would otherwise be 
inevitable, and the individual thus more quickly attains to 
Nirvana where all suffering, together with the individual 
existence, ceases. 

Buddhism teaches charity, kindness, truth, chastity and 
self-denial, and in its pure form is distinctly uplifting and 
ennobling, although the Buddhism of India today is usually 


RELIGIONS 337 


encrusted with Hindu or Animistic superstitions. Of the 
10,721,000 Buddhists in India, all but 400,000 are in Burma. 


MOHAMMEDANISM 


About 70,000,000 inhabitants of India are Mohammedans, 
who represent a much more forceful and intelligent class 
than do the Hindus. ‘There is almost no doubt that if 
Great Britain should withdraw, the Mohammedans, although 
in the minority, would soon dominate India, if they were 
left undisturbed by foreign Powers. 

Mohammedanism (the name Mohammed means “the 
praised one”) has the following essential dogmas: 

1. Prayers five times a day at specified hours, with the 
face of the worshipper turned toward Mecca. 

2. The giving of alms. 

3. The fast of Ramazan during one entire month when 
no food is eaten until sunset. 

4. A pilgrimage once a lifetime, if it is humanly possible, 
to the holy city of Mecca. 

‘These doctrines, together with the adherence to the idea 
of one God, with Mohammed as his prophet, embraces the 
whole programme of Mohammedanism. 

The idea of the spreading of their religion by the sword, 
and the assurance of paradise to the man who kills a Chris- 
tian or other “infidel,” pervades the whole of the Moham- 
medan world. 

The Sikhs (the word means “‘disciple’’) denounce idolatry 
and caste but are worshippers of Vishnu. ‘They prohibited 
“suttee’ or the immolation of widows (long before Great 
Britain made it illegal), the immurement of women, the use 
of intoxicants, the making of pilgrimages, the associating of 
sacred power with rivers or animals,—in fact, it is a re- 
formed Hinduism, and it is a pity that it has not helped to 
deliver India from its debasing shackles to a greater extent 
than it has done. 

Jainism will be summarised in connection with the Jain 


338 INDIA 


temple at Calcutta, and the Parsee Faith under the caption 
of “The Towers of Silence,’ in a subsequent descriptive 
account of Bombay. 

India’s Need. ‘The great need of India is the use of the 
modern scientific method of education, and especially the 
leavening power of a broad and an unsectarian Christianity. 
Dr. John van Schaick, Jr., in his charming book, ‘Cruising 
Around a Changing World,” well says, “It is Christianity 
that cuts through caste, dignifies the position of women, 
frees childhood from child labour and child marriage, pro- 
motes education, introduces modern medicine, increases 
physical well-being, and gives a religion of faith and hope 
and good works and personal morality in exchange for 
one largely based on superstition, exhibiting itself in cere- 
monies,” 


CAL CU 


Calcutta is very unfortunately situated from a commercial 
point of view. It is eighty-two miles from the mouth of 
the Hooghly River and the nearest approach for ocean 
steamers in that river is at Diamond Harbour, forty-two 
miles from Calcutta. All trafic must necessarily be con- 
veyed by river steamers from Diamond Harbour or by the 
rather insignificant railway going from Diamond Harbour 
up to Calcutta. The fact that the river is constantly shift- . 
ing its channel and needs skilled pilots, and that owing to 
swift currents and shifting channels it admits of day traffic 
only, adds to the commercial disadvantages. 

As one approaches the city, the numerous factory chim- 
neys and the imposing domes, notably that of the Victoria 
Memorial, indicate the size and importance of the city. In 
spite of the commercial disadvantages, there are over 250 
factories and mills (mostly engaged in the manufacture of 
jute) in Calcutta and vicinity, with 300,000 employes. 

Calcutta is hardly as much a “City of Dreadful Night” 
as is Benares, but it is a city of marked contrasts between 


CAI CUE LT A sa9 


British officialdom living in luxury, and the squalid native 
quarters adjoining. 

It was the British capital of India for more than a cen- 
tury until 1912, at which time the seat of Government was 
transferred to Delhi. The population (1921) is 1,263,292. 


hd Um Od LA Goa 


Calcutta was founded in 1690 by Job Charnock and was 
then known as Old Fort William, named after King William 
III. Charnock was a unique character, which is perhaps 
best illustrated by the fact that he carried off a Hindu widow 
who was to be burned by “suttee,’’ married her and had 
several Eurasian children. He himself accepted the Hindu 
religion, and after his wife’s death made annual sacrifices 
of goats before the image of the goddess Kali as a memorial 
to his wife. 

The Old Fort William gave way in 1773 to the present 
Fort costing $10,000,000, which has an octagonal shape and 
encloses two square miles. It is surrounded by a deep dry 
ditch which in an emergency can be quickly filled with 
water by a sluice from the river. 

Warren Hastings (who made this the capital of the Hon- 
ourable East India Company in 1774 and became its first 
Governor), Sir Philip Francis (the supposed author of the 
celebrated Junius letters), Lord Clive, Lord Canning, and 
Lord Curzon, have all been historic figures in its develop- 
ment. 

The story goes that Jahanara Begum, the beautiful daugh- 
ter of the Mogul emperor, Shah Jahan, was very ill and that 
the English surgeon of the East India Company effected a 
cure. As a reward, the English were allowed to settle at 
Hooghly. 


leer ACK HOLE OF CALCU ITA 


Calcutta was attacked in 1756 by Siraj-ud-Baulah, the 
ruler of the Bengal province under the Delhi Government, 


340 INDIA 


because Governor Drake had harboured one of his enemies. 
When an army of 70,000 men with 400 elephants approached 
Calcutta, Governor Drake without notice abandoned the 
city, followed by the commander of the garrison with his 
troops and some refugees, deserting two hundred and fifty 
men (of whom eighty were English soldiers and gunners), 
besides women and children. 

The point was easily captured within seventy hours after, 
and the surviving people,—one hundred and forty-six in 
all, were crowded into a room in the military prison in 
the fort. It was fourteen by eighteen feet, with two very 
small barred windows. ‘These prisoners were forced into 
this dungeon at eight o’clock in the evening, having been 
put there because of the stupidity of the guards, who were 
told to keep them in a safe place. Only twenty-three were 
alive the next morning, the rest having died from heat and 
suffocation. ‘The Holwell Monument on the corner of 
Dalhousie Square marks the place where the dead bodies 
were thrown into a ditch. ‘The site of ‘““The Black Hole” 
is now marked by a marble pavement at the northern end 
of the eastern verandah of the Post Office, where the original 
Old Fort stood, and is marked by a tablet. 

Early the next year Calcutta was recaptured and from 
this date has made rapid progress. 


IMPORTANT SoG 8a 


Dalhousie Square is at the centre of Calcutta, and around 
it are grouped most of the important government and busi- 
ness Offices. It was here that Job Charnock established his 
settlement. It takes its name from the Earl of Dalhousie, 
whose office as Governor General expired in 1856. 

In the centre of the Square is a little lake and a well-kept 
garden and statues of erstwhile official dignitaries. Around 
the Square are grouped the General Post Office, the Custom 
House, and the East Indian Railway House. 

The Government House, built in 1804 by Lord Wel- 


PLC HES EBING 341 


lesley, then Governor General, at a cost of $1,300,000, is an 
imposing white structure at the northern end of the Maidan. 
It is situated in a large garden of six acres enclosed by a 
high wall punctuated with stately gates, and is accessible to 
visitors. It has a handsome interior, the principal apart- 
ments being the Throne Room, the Council Chamber, the 
Banqueting Hall, and a suite of Ball Rooms. It gives a 
commanding view of two miles across the Maidan. ‘The 
Treasury Buildings are on the west side of Government 
Place and contain the library of the Astronomical Society. 

The Maidan, in the centre of Calcutta, is a Park nearly 
two miles long and averaging nearly a mile wide bordering 
on the river front. The Government House and the Gov- 
ernor’s Palace are on the north, while Belvedere House, in 
which Lieutenant Governors lived (now a School for the 
select class of Indian boys), is near the southern end. On 
the west side are the several hotels, the United Service and 
Bengal Clubs, the Army and Navy Stores, and the Indian 
Museum. In the northwest corner are the Eden Gardens, 
together with the Race Course, which has a track two miles 
in circumference. ‘To the south loom the Victoria Memorial, 
the Cathedral and the Calcutta Club. 

The Victoria Memorial, costing $6,000,000, is an im- 
posing marble building in the style of the Italian Renais- 
sance, with a lofty central dome and square corner turrets. 
It is often spoken of as the “White Glory of Calcutta.” 
It was formally opened by the Prince of Wales, December 
28, 1921. Its massive dome can be seen by incoming steam- 
ers twenty-two miles down the river. At the entrance is a 
fine statue of the Queen Mother, Victoria, and farther to 
the north a bronze statue of Lord Curzon. ‘The four alle- 
gorical figures at the corners of the dome represent com- 
merce, peace, agriculture and famine relief. 

The interior dome of the Memorial is rich in twin-hued 
marble, floral carving, embossed scupture and fine filigree 
work,—a treasury of allegory, symbol and history. Many 
incidents during the Queen’s lifetime are pictured in the 


342 INDIA 


panels. ‘Twelve frescoes, representing scenes of the Queen’s 
life, decorate the walls, one of which pictures her as holding 
her first council at Kensington Palace, June 20, 1837. “The 
youthful Victoria in marble is conspicuous. 

A picture, twenty-four feet long, by the celebrated Rus- 
sian painter Vereschagin, and presented by the Maharaja of 
Jaipur, represents King Edward VII, while Prince of Wales 
in 1875, seated on an elephant with that Maharaja. In the 
background is the Palace of the Winds at Jaipur. Just 
adjoining are some fine water colour sketches of Indian 
scenes, painted by the Misses Eden, who presented the Eden 
Gardens to Calcutta. ‘Tablets affixed to the walls give the 
Queen’s Proclamation to the people of India. ‘The central 
hall is known as Queen’s Hall, from which five other cor- 
ridors open,—one to the left with busts and pictures of 
India’s great worthies, one to the right displayng large can- 
vases of famous scenes, together with a room containing 
ancient arms and trophies, and a Durbar Hall for great 
State occasions. 

The outlook from the top of the structure gives a superb 
view of Calcutta. A revolving figure of the Angel of 
Victory, weighing five tons, crowns the Central dome. 

The Eden Gardens are an alluring place for promenades. 
They have a Burmese pagoda in the centre, a statue of 
George Eden, Earl of Auckland, and a handsome music 
pavilion for band concerts on the west side of the Gardens. 

The principal Jain Temple, which is situated near the 
Upper Circular Road, is a rather showy and spectacular 
structure set in a captivating garden. It was the gift of 
Rai Buddree Dass Bahabur Makim to the Viceroy, and was 
erected in 1867. ‘The entrance is a triple-storied, brilliantly 
tiled gate-house ornamented with lively colours. In the 
eastern end of the garden, which is gay with tropical trees, 
plants and flowers, with peacocks strutting here and there, 
is a picturesque little lake with an artistic central fountain. 


_ The Shish Mahal, or Palace of Mirrors, at the north end 


has a lie interior, in which walls, ceiling and even the 





HOLY AMMAN? 
AT CALCUTTA 


STREFT BARBER 


SIGHTSEEING 343 


floor, are of resplendent and many-coloured crystals. Just 
outside is a smaller garden featured by a marble pavilion 
erected to the memory of the donor’s mother. 

The temple itself is on a white marble terrace reached by 
thirteen steps of marble, inlaid with mosaic ornamentation. 
The inner sanctum sanctorum is encircled by ornamented 
gilt pillars and in the centre may be seen the white marble 
deity, always embowered in roses, placed upon an iridescent 
crystal altar brilliant with a hundred lights. 

The Jain religion is contemporaneous with the Buddhist, 
and its main principle is: “Regard for life is the highest 
virtue.’ ‘The Jainists represent the best type of intelligent 
merchants and dealers in cloth and jewels. ‘Their religion 
embodies a belief in reincarnation, with the worship of the 
twenty-four mortals who are the “Liberated Ones,” each of 
which is represented as being in a posture of repose and 
contemplation. 

The Hastings House, situated on Judges’ Court Road, 
was the residence of Warren Hastings, the first Governor 
General of Calcutta. In 1915 it was converted into a Boys’ 
School. The story of Warren Hastings’ brilliant career in 
India and of his subsequent impeachment and trial is well 
known. His life was full of unusual episodes, among which 
was his romantic attachment to Madam Imhoff, the wife of 
Baron Carl Imhoff, a German military officer. He paid 
Baron Imhoff a large sum to induce him to return to Ger- 
many, and after the divorce he married Madam Imhoff. 

The Stuart Hogg market on Lindsay Street has a char- 
acteristic interest all its own. It is a large brick building 
with a frontage of over three hundred feet and contains not 
only meats, fruits and vegetables, but many kinds of mer- 
chandise in its various bazaar booths. Here are to be found 
curio dealers, silversmiths, milliners, embroidery and silk 
vendors, and many other merchants displaying their char- 
acteristic wares. 

The Opera House on Lindsay Street has been the scene 
of notable fashionable gatherings. Here on New Year’s 


344 DN 
Day, 1876, King Edward VII, then Prince of Wales, 


attended a gala performance at which the lowest-priced 
single tickets were $17, and box seats sold from $165 to 
$335. Evidently the sudden rise in prices does not take 
place only at a time when American tourists arrive. 

The Indian Museum at 27 Chrowringhee Street is a 
rather impressive building, 300 by 270 feet. ‘The Bharhut 
sculptures, representing the sacred stories of Brahmanism, 
are unusually important, and here are also shown some 
extraordinarily fine relics such as carved gateways, bas- 
reliefs and images from the famous ancient buildings of 
India. ‘The Museum is also especially rich in Buddhist art. 
The Zoological Department has taxidermed examples of 
animal life such as birds, reptiles, and mammals, and there 
is a rare collection of 12,000 specimens of minerals and 
112,000 fossils. Here, too, is an Ethnological section with 
life-like aborigines in their native setting showing their 
houses, weapons, musical instruments, and boats. The gold 
throne of King Thibaw, who ruled Burma from 1878 to 
1885, is also on exhibition. The Museum is of rare quality 
and should not be missed. It is usually open from 10 A.M. 
to 5 P.M. 

The Commercial Museum in Council House Street has 
an exhibition of all kinds of articles which are entirely of 
Indian manufacture. 

The Temple of Kali, built in 1809, and reached by cross- 
ing the Kalighat Bridge, is a hideous structure of mud and 
plaster. It is built in honour of Kali, Siva’s wife. Siva, 
the destroyer, is one of the divine trinity of the Hindu 
religion, the other two being Brahma, the creator, and 
Vishnu, the preserver. Kali represents the creative force, 
but has degenerated into the conception of cruelty and blood- 
thirstiness. 

In a corner of the court is a champa tree whose branches 
are decorated with coloured threads and other offerings pre- 
sented by praying women desiring sons. Half-naked sadhus, 
or religious fakirs (the word “fakir”’ is the Arabic word 


SIGHTSEEING 345 


“noor”’), are everywhere and usually in a begging attitude. 
Sacred cows, always sleek and fat (while humans starve), 
wander unmolested through the temple courtyard, as well 
as about the business streets, one having been seen wending 
her way into a bank. Priests are busy browbeating the 
people, especially the women, out of their last coin. Yogis 
sit squat on the ground encircling small fires. Singers, bells 
and tom-toms make a Babel of confusing noises. At the 
bloody altar as many as forty goats are daily sacrificed, of 
which the meat, such part as is not used by the priests, is 
given to the poor. 

In a place of honour is the image of Kali with four arms, 
three red eyes and a protruding scarlet tongue hanging down 
to her waist. A necklace of skulls and garlands of flowers 
add to her decorations, and help to complete this esthetic 
picture. The sight of this image of Kali arouses the crowd 
to a terrible religious hysteria. 

The Burning Ghat is not far from the Temple, the way 
leading through narrow streets bordered by shrines and 
shops, the latter being emblazoned with images of Kali and 
other temple souvenirs. After passing some bright-hued 
arcades called Chetty’s Ghat, one comes to a walled garden 
enclosing a Temple. Here dead bodies are cremated much 
after the fashion described in the chapter on Benares. 

' Prinsep’s Ghat is a pier where royal personages were 
wont to land. A pair of lions guard the top of the stairs de- 
scending to the river. 

The Mint is beyond the Howrah Bridge and is said to be 
the largest in the world, covering over eighteen acres. Here 
silver, nickel, and copper coins are made. 

The Marble Palace in Muklaram Babu Street is set in 
a great garden filled with statues. Within the Palace is a 
very large figure of Queen Victoria in her coronation robes. 
On the floor above is a Picture Gallery which contains 
several copied paintings by Rubens, Joshua Reynolds, etc. 
In the garden are some rare animals, peacocks, and gaily- 


346 INDIA 


coloured birds. At the north end, where the family deity 
is enshrined, hundreds of poor people are fed daily. 

The Botanical Gardens are at Sibpur, a little beyond 
Howrah, reached by crossing a handsome new bridge over 
the Hooghly River. A trip to the Gardens makes one of 
the pleasing drives around Calcutta, and the roads in the 
garden itself lead through captivating scenes. Here is the 
famous banyan tree, said to be the largest in India, being 
1,000 feet in circumference and having 378 aerial roots. 
Tea plants, the quinine-producing chinchona, and many 
other forms of tropical vegetation are also in evidence. 

Alipore is on the other side of Tolly’s Nolly, a muddy 
tributary of the Ganges, and here are the government jail 
and reformatory as well as factories and storehouses. ‘This 
is the place where the famous duel between Warren Hast- 
ings and Sir Philip Francis occurred, in which Francis was 
severely wounded. 

It is interesting in this connection to dwell upon an 
episode in the rather checkered career of Sir Philip Francis. 
He was tried at Calcutta for alienating the affections of the 
fifteen-year-old bride of a young Swiss writer in the com- 
pany service named Grand, and was compelled to pay fifty 
thousand rupees to the injured husband. ‘Twelve months 
later, Madame Grand left for Europe and in 1802, when in 
her fortieth year, married de Talleyrand, Bere famous 
Minister of foreign affairs. 

Here in Alipore William Makepeace Thackeray, the 
novelist, lived when a child, his father being a government 
collector. 

The Zoological Gardens have attractive grounds and a 
good collection of animals, birds, and reptiles. 

Places of Worship. Calcutta has two Parsee “Towers 
of Silence,” but people who include Bombay in their itinerary 
can see them to much better advantage there. “The same 
may be said of the Parsee Fire Temple. A Portuguese 
Cathedral, an Armenian Church, a Greek Church, a Jewish 


CHURCHES 347 


Synagogue, and a Mohammedan mosque are to be found in 
Calcutta. 

St. Paul’s Cathedral is on the southeast corner of the 
Maidan and was consecrated in 1847. It has been the cen- 
tre of prominent official events. St. Andrew’s Scotch Pres- 
byterian Church is on Dalhousie Square. St. John’s Church 
(formerly called the Cathedral) is a Church of England on 
Hastings Street, the scene of many historic happenings and 
memorials. At the south end of the churchyard is the 
mausoleum of Job Charnock, and the tombs of other promi- 
nent historical figures like Lady Canning, Admiral Watson 
and others. 

Among the recent churches are the Wesleyan, the Baptist, 
the Congregational, the Methodist Episcopal and a Roman 
Catholic Church. 

The Old Mission Church has a tablet to the Rev. Henry 
Martyn, so often spoken of as an illustrious example of 
religious consecration. ‘The steeple of this church was so 
injured in the earthquake of 1897, that it was necessary to 
rebuild it. 

Missions. Important religious work is carried on by the 
Oxford Mission High School, the St. James’ School for 
Eurasians, the Church Missionary Society Missions and 
Schools, the Baptist Mission Society, the Church of Scot- 
land and the Wesleyan Mission. 

Hotels. The principal Hotels are the Grand, Great 
Eastern, Spence, and Continental, the first two being the 
best, although the hotels of Calcutta are not commensurate 
with the size and importance of the City. 

River Landing. Passengers coming by the Hoogly River 
steamers usually land at Outram Ghat. 

Railway Stations. Travellers on the East Indian Rail- 
way going toward Benares cross the Howrah Bridge, 1,528 
feet long, and take the train at the Howrah Station. ‘The 
railway time is twenty minutes behind the ordinary city 
time. ‘The Darjeeling passengers take the train on the Cal- 
cutta side of the river at the Sealdah Station. 


348 INDIA 


Motor Trips are available and are usually at the rate of 
ten annas (twenty cents) a mile. 


THE TRIP: TO  DARPE 


The Ramayana, the great prose epic of early Brahmanism, 
says, ““As the dew is dried up by the morning, so are the 
sins of mankind dried up at the sight of Himalchal (Himala- 
yas).” 

The word Himalayas means “snow abode.” From this 
source issue all the great rivers of India, the Ganges rising 
out of an ice cave located over 10,000 feet above the sea. 

Darjeeling is 367 miles north of Calcutta and is near the 
frontier between India, Nepaland and Tibet. It was once 
a deserted village in an impenetrable forest, but is now a 
community of 17,000 people, with modern hotels, and 
charming floral-embowered villas occupied by Europeans. 

The trip starts from the Sealdah Station in Calcutta 
and requires six hours by broad gauge to Santahar, then 
seven hours on a metre gauge to Siliguri, changing to a 
narrow gauge on which it takes six or seven hours more to 
go up to Darjeeling. 

The railway first passes through 300 miles of the flat 
plains of India, crossing the Sara Bridge over the Ganges, 
124 miles north of Calcutta, the bridge being more than a 
mile long and costing $12,500,000. It was built in 1915 
and replaced the former ferry. 

Siliguri Station is 328 miles from Calcutta. From here 
the narrow gauge goes the remaining forty miles to Dar- 
jeeling. 

The locomotives weigh ten tons and the train averages 
less than eight miles an hour, each hour rising over 1,000 
feet. All the capital for this narrow gauge road was raised 
in India, and it has proved a paying investment, in spite of 
the fact that it cost $6,000,000 originally, and has had 
$15,000,000 spent on it since. In 1920, it carried 263,092 
passengers, and 61,704 tons of freight. 


THE ASCENT 349 


The temperature falls rapidly as the altitude increases, 
and travellers are warned to safeguard themselves with 
warm wraps. ‘The nights at Darjeeling are often quite cold. 

It was from Siliguri that the expedition in 1904 was 
made against Lhasa, the “Forbidden City,” 359 miles dis- 
tant. In going over this route one must cross over a Pass 
16,800 feet high, Lhasa itself having an altitude of 12,300 
feet. ‘The rule which excluded Europeans from Tibet has 
been somewhat relaxed,—in fact, Great Britain has assumed 
a practical protectorate. It was the desire of China to 
monopolise the tea trade, which was the main reason why the 
lamas excluded Europeans from ‘Tibet. 

Climbing the Mountain. As the train proceeds to Dar- 
jeeling, the ascent begins six miles beyond Siliguri, and the 
scenery is most majestic. “The train passes through great 
jungles and forests, and at one point goes around a spur 
which runs along the edge of a precipice one thousand feet 
high. The road all the way up to the Darjeeling level winds 
round and about through fascinating views. As Mark 
‘Twain said, ‘“The road is infinitely and charmingly crooked.” 
One has glimpses of illimitable plains below, with their teem- 
ing millions of blighted lives, and views of glory-crowned 
peaks above, where lie the unspotted eternal snows. 

It takes six or seven hours to cover the forty miles up 
the mountain over a grade rising from three to five de- 
grees, the tiny trains being drawn by small engines. 

At Kurseong Station, 32 miles beyond Siliguri, at an ele- 
vation of five thousand feet are tea gardens and a European 
settlement and Hotel. Usually the train stops here for break- 
fast or lunch. The chota-hazri or six o'clock preliminary 
breakfast, which is the rule all over India, is usually served 
on the trains. 

There are many tea plantations to be seen that extend in 
terraces up to the very top of the lesser mountains approach- 
ing the Himalayas. ‘Tea is the prime staple here, and more 
than 125,000 acres are planted, an acre often yielding 240 
pounds of finished tea. 


350 TINIE a 


At Ghoom the train reaches the highest point of 7,470 
feet and then gradually makes the slight descent to Dar- 
jeeling. 


DARJEELING 


The name Darjeeling means ‘Place of the thunderbolt.” 
It suffered greatly from the effects of the earthquake in 
1897. It stands upon a ridge nearly seven thousand feet 
above the bed of the Rajit River and the terraced roads run 
along the knife-edged crest. 

From this point of vantage one looks down into this vast 
abyss and then the eye travels up the sloping sides of Kin- 
chinjanga, over twenty-eight thousand feet high, the last 
twelve thousand feet being covered with eternal snows. 
Pile Mt. Shasta on Mt. Tacoma and you exceed very little 
the altitude of this stupendous giant. The summit of Kin- 
chinjanga, with its streamers of waving light and its tinted 
cloud banners, is divided into two peaks, giving perhaps the | 
most superb view on earth, unless it be at Tiger Hill where 
a score of giant mountains come into the range of vision 
forming the very backbone of the world. ‘The first sight 
comes as a shock, leaving one dazed and breathless. 

Tiger Hill is 8,574 feet high, over fifteen hundred feet 
higher than Darjeeling and about six miles from Darjeel- 
ing by horseback, or by sedan chair. It is well to get to 
Tiger Hill before the first break of day, as the effect of the 
sun’s first rays upon the great ranges of Titan mountains, 
and their slow creeping down the snow-clad inclines, make a 
very marvellous picture. 

Guests at the hotels wishing to take this trip usually 
retire early and are called about two o'clock in the morning, 
served with a light breakfast and are mounted and away 
before three. Horseback riding is the ideal way of making 
the climb, but one must be provided with warm clothing, 
for the nights are cold at this altitude. Those who go by 
sedan chair are carried by four men who move in surpris-. 


GRO ET LT 351 


ing unison to a crooning rhythmic sound in which they all 
join. One particularly stout gentleman took eight carriers 
for his chair, and afterwards stated that he quite liked his 
eight cylinder car. 

Whether one rides a pony or is carried by chair up the 
winding circuitous path, it is a weird and never-to-be-forgot- 
ten experience. [The way at times leads through stretches 
of deep-shadowed forests, and again comes out into a vast 
expanse under the light perhaps of a full moon, or of stars 
that appear super-brilliant in the crisp dry mountain air. 
After reaching the summit, hot coffee is sometimes served 
by the tourist management while eager eyes watch for the 
slow coming of the dawn. 

It is always a marvellous sight, this gradual change of 
colour from the sombre tones of the night to the glory of the 
morning, but nowhere else is it so impressive as from this 
mountain top, with its grand contours of illimitable spaces 
and sweeping horizons. ‘There is an “eager nipping air” 
on the frosty mountain top that might ordinarily chill enthu- 
siasm, but the vision that comes with the breaking of the day 
brings its glorious reward and transcends all one’s boldest 
imaginings. “he mountains begin to look like white phan- 
toms resting on hazy dark-purple mountain foundations. 
Then comes the first rose-flush gradually turning to gold, 
then the first gleam of sunshine on Kinchinjanga like the 
flash of a mammoth beacon signal. ‘Then it runs along the 
chain of peaks like a giant lamp-lighter making the pinnacles 
of the world aflame with light and colour. 

If one adds to this the incomparable view of the snowy 
range and even a momentary glimpse of Mount Everest, 
which looks like a lesser peak nearly a hundred miles away, 
the overpowering majesty of it all is beyond description. 
One is looking on the greatest mountain wall of the world, 
a mighty parapet overlooking the heavens and the earth. 
The spectator is spell-bound as in a trance, and then silently 
descends, cherishing the memory of an experience of scenic 
glory transcending all others that the earth can show. 


352 TDN Dilad 


True it is that clouds sometimes veil the peaks and visi- 
tors fail to see Mt. Everest’s crest or even the unending 
stretches of mountain tops, but the wild beauty of the ride 
offers much compensation, and the tourist should take the 
gambler’s chance, especially as a stay of several days will 
almost surely give occasional glorious glimpses of the 
world’s crest. 

On the return trip from Tiger Hill one passes what was 
once the military station and sanatorium of Jelapahar, now 
deserted because the loneliness and desolation drove soldiers 
and invalids into insanity. 

Observatory Hill once had a Buddhist monastery on its 
crest and here Buddhists still offer prayers, ring bells, beat 
tom-toms and make their offerings. 

The Buddhist Chorten of the Red Tibetan type is down 
the ridge and its temple and quaint village people are inter- 
esting. 

The Victoria Falls near Rosebank and the Residence of 
the Maharaja of Burdwan have a distinctive charm. 

The Nepal Frontier can be crossed by using available 
conveyances, making a ride of wonderful scenery and fas- 
cinating pictures of native life, giving a thrilling sense of 
mystery and adventure. 

The Eden Sanatorium is a conspicuous building doing a 
fine work, and is carried on by English women. ‘The 
attractive Summer Home of the Governor of Bengal will 
also be pointed out. 

Churches. ‘The principal ones are St. Andrew’s Church, 
the Old Church, with some tablets of English officers; a 
Union Chapel, and a Scotch Kirk. 

Schools. Among Schools are St. Paul’s and St. Joseph’s 
Schools and the Diocesan Girls’ High School. 

Hotels. ‘The principal Hotels are the Mount Everest, 
which is of the highest standard, the Woodlands and the 
Rockville. 

Conveyances. At Darjeeling rikishas, sedan chairs, 
dandies, ponies and autos are available. 


NenOR PIN G 353 


Bazaars. ‘The Bazaar is the principal attraction in the 
centre of the town, and is especially thronged with natives 
on Saturdays and Sundays. Sunday is the gala day when 
the mountaineers bring their market wares, and the tea 
pickers come to show their finery and to buy some additional 
coveted ornaments with their hard earned wages. At this 
Bazaar interesting things may be purchased, such as native 
embroideries, crude metal work, masks worn by devil dan- 
cers, prayer wheels, images of strange gods, tiger skins from 
the jungles, stone marten and other furs from the Hima- 
layas, together with amulets, finger rings, toe rings, and 
many forms of rather crude but artistic jewellery, bells, 
drinking cups, vases, skull bowls, and beaded and embroid- 
ered tobacco pouches. 

Married women adorn (!) their noses on the sides with 
flat discs of silver and gold, sometimes jewelled, varying in 
size from a dime to almost a quarter. “These are fastened on 
by a little stem which pierces the nostril and is screwed to a 
similar disc on the inside of the nose. “They sometimes wear 
two or three small ones on one side and a large one on the 
other. ‘These curiosities may be purchased in the shops and 
are sold, as is other jewellery, by weight. ‘“Turquoises set 
in silver are distinctive and are sold at low prices, as both 
are mined in this region, although imitations are very com- 
mon. All the Tibetans wear the turquoise ornaments in 
their ears using them as show cases, by which they hope to 
attract purchasers. Usually the hillman has only ground 
glass of turquoise blue, the regular dealer being more trust- 
worthy. 

Climate. ‘The temperature at Darjeeling never exceeds 
80° F. in summer and does not fall below 30° in winter, 
with an annual average of 54° F. 

The People. ‘The people represent quite a strange mix- 
ture, combining the Mongolian flat face and high cheek 
bones with the Hindu caste mark, wearing queues under 
their turbans and loose-sleeved Chinese coats with overlap- 
ping fronts. There are the broad faced Lepchas and 


354 INDIA 


Bhutianese, who stare stolidly before them, each woman 
being the family savings bank, laden with clusters of hoarded 
rupees upon her neck in overlapping circles. . They are of 
Tibetan stock and inclined to be sluggish and lazy. ‘The 
Tibetans are everywhere to be seen, largely forming the 
workers on the tea plantations. ‘The Gurkhas are very 
hardy, and the men proved themselves very good soldiers 
in the World War. ‘The Nepalese are the chief burden 
bearers. All these races are distinctly Mongolian in type, 
with high cheek bones and rather short heavy bodies. ‘The 
women’s rich materials and the striking colours in purple, 
red, green, orange and yellow, make the streets a pictur- 
esque glare of colour. 

Visitors are often entertained with a weird “devil 
dance,” given by the Bhutians, which is a very spectacular 
performance, perhaps more so than any other native dance 
in Asia. 


BE NA RoE 


Benares or Kasi (the Bright) is the Holy City par excel- 
lence, filled with grandiose temples and shrines, some of 
them facing the sacred river Ganges, from which descend 
the long stairs full of squares, curves and corners, making 
room for multitudes of smaller shrines and temples. 

There are nearly fifty ghats with their connecting stair- 
ways. It is a city of 199,993 people (in 1921), where the 
population largely lives on the half million and more pil- 
grims that come annually for the supreme visit to the city 
of their dreams. 

Some one with a mania for dealing in large mathematics 
has estimated that there are here 200,000 gods, 2,000 temples 
and 40,000 Brahmin priests, who not only dominate Benares, 
but send out their influence into broadcast India. 

Some aristocratic pilgrims come in royal state on backs 
of elephants, others are huddled together in fourth class 
railroad coaches where they scarcely have standing room, 


BENARES eh: 


expecting to redeem their loss of caste in the Holy City, but 
most of them come on foot, in some cases tramping hundreds 
of weary miles. 

There is such an extreme sanctity in Benares which in- 
cludes the soil, air and water, that all who come into its 
precincts are purified from sin, and thereby hope to escape 
at least in part the penalty of rebirth into the world in the 
lower forms of animal life. Those who die here are prom- 
ised liberation from the ‘‘wheel of life’ with its hopeless 
round of incarnations and deaths. 

To combat such incredible superstitions that are cherished 
with a truly fanatical zeal, the British Government has an 
appalling task. A hundred years of British influence have 
scarcely made a dent in this wall of superstition that has 
been built up during twenty-five centuries. Certainly, a 
number of generations must inevitably pass before a general 
enlightenment will show people their folly. 

It was here and at Sarnath, as well as in all the adjacent 
districts that Gautama Buddha preached and laboured, and 
for eight hundred years his doctrines had some influence. 
It has proved an unspeakable calamity to India that Bud- 
dhism, with its higher ideals and absence of caste, did not pre- 
vail over the degraded practices of Hinduism. 

Of course the pundits and educated “‘babus” say that Hin- 
duism even as here practised is not idolatry, but that these 
images of Vishnu, Siva, Krishna, Ganesha, Kali, etc., to- 
gether with the sacred bulls, monkeys, and wells, are only 
symbols of the simplest of creeds, the noblest of faiths, as 
well as the most satisfying philosophy to be found anywhere 
in the world. 

Perhaps half a million pious pilgrims from every part of 
India come annually to Benares to worship in the dingy and 
tawdry temples and be absolved from their sins in the purify- 
ing waters of the Ganges. They then rejoicingly take their 
departure, rather regretting that death did not overtake 
them within the sacred confines of the city, which would 
have meant a speedier entrance into coveted Nirvana. They 


356 INDIA 


go away, however, with an abiding sense of having acquired 
“merit” by a visit to the Sacred City, which will enrich 
them for all time to come. Every pilgrim must make the 
thirty-six mile pilgrimage around the sacred territory of 
Benares, the way being lined by shrines at which they must 
stop and worship. Some of these fakirs have measured 
every inch of this circle with their prone bodies. 

While innumerable gods are included in the Hindu relig- 
ion, the prominent deity of Benares and largely in other 
parts of India is Siva (or Shiva). The particular symbol 
of this deity consists of a gilt trident and a perforated disc 
which gleams from the pinnacles of uncounted temples and 
shrines. 

The so-called “holy men,’ who have renounced life as 
“the great illusion,” infest the place and manage by one 
pretext or another to beguile pilgrims into making generous 
gifts of coins and of rice in the name of religion. ‘These 
are ragged, unkempt and smeared with ashes and filth, sit- 
ting stoically like graven images, and yet with the rigid ges- 
ture and posture of one appealing for alms. It is estimated 
that there are three million of these in India, most of them 
being strong men of young and middle age, who should be 
forced to work, as they give no service to the public, not 
even as the priests of the temples do, who aid the people in 
their worship. Blind and deformed beggars and lepers add 
to the cheerful and engaging scene. 

One should start at daylight and, securing a seat in one 
of the visitors’ boats, be rowed slowly along the mile or more 
of shore-line where most pilgrims come. This gives a won- 
derful sweep of the city facing the river, with its palaces, 
temples and gardens, either precariously perched on the sides 
of the slope or crowning the bluff above. 


by 


BA‘T HI NG: Giiawies 


Almost at any hour in the early morning, thousands of 
white-clad pilgrims and worshippers crowd the stairways 





SNAKE CHARMERS AT BENARES 
WOMAN PULLING “PUNKA” FAN 


ey, 





PaetHINnG,; GHATS 357 


leading down to the bathing ghats, and enter the sacred 
waters of the Ganges. ‘They step down into the water 
and stoop and raise a handful of the sacred fluid to their 
lips and foreheads, and they then face the East and lift their 
arms to the sun as to a deity. Wading out to their waists or 
armpits in the sacred waters, they engage in their devotions 
with a rapt and ecstatic manner, such as a person might have 
when under hypnotic influence. The mechanical minutize 
of worship so absorbs them that they ignore the curious spec- 
tators, lest if they allowed their minds to wander from the 
exacting ritual and should omit a single word or gesture, 
they must begin the long routine of worship anew. 

Each person standing in the river tosses a handful of 
water three times into the air as an offering. ‘Then he im- 
merses the entire body, after which he recites the ancient 
Vedic hymns, together with the names of the gods, repeat- 
ing with constant droning the sacred syllable ‘‘om.” ‘These 
worshippers drink handfuls of holy water and let little rivu- 
lets course through their fingers, always facing toward the 
East and keeping their lips moving in prayer. "They pour 
the water over themselves from their water jars, which they 
dip into the river again and again, in order to be purified, 
although at the moment perhaps standing near the discharg- 
ing city sewers or near the burning ghat where ashes and 
unburned portions of human bodies are floating about. 

Brahmins on raised platforms on the edge of the river, 
apart from the “vulgar herd,” go through their morning 
devotions with a rigid face, dipping their fingers or wisps 
of grass into the water, contemplating them in trance-like, 
hypnotic intensity, naming the 108 manifestations of Siva 
and the 1008 manifestations of Vishnu, going through genu- 
flections and slow calisthenic movements, and touching their 
faces, arms, breasts and knees in rhythmic formulas. It is 
very fascinating to watch these devotees standing in the 
water, rubbing the ashes from the sacred cow dung over 
their bodies, shampooing their heads with river mud because 
they think soap impure,—all in the name of holy religion. 


358 IN DTZ 


Multitudes of men and women and children are to be 
seen up to their armpits in the holy embrace of Mother 
Ganga, bringing offerings of white and yellow flowers. 
Special canopies for grandees are provided in rocky recesses. 

The Brahmin priests coin money rapidly by giving cer- 
tificates of absolution or placing holy seals on vessels filled 
with Ganges water to be carried as precious souvenirs to 
the home land. Occasionally one sees a gasping and dying 
invalid rushed to the stream for a final absolving baptism. 
Even so thousands have come down to the Ganges daily 
for uncounted generations. 

Sanitary instructions count for nothing in the face of this 
superstition, as they prefer this muddy and filthy water even 
to the system of water which the British have provided, with 
projecting pipes and faucets at every street corner from 
which pure water can be drawn. Of course this custom is 
not peculiar to these people alone, as there are many Chris- 
tian pilgrims from Russia and other lands, who have much 
the same feeling about the muddy waters of the Jordan 
river. 

The high caste women and the wives of potentates row 
off in curtained boats to bathe and worship apart from the 
crowd. ‘There are also separate women’s ghats at various 
places along the river, where especially the widows, who 
still believe themselves in some mysterious way responsible 
for the death of their husbands, are wont to gather. At 
these ghats the ‘“‘suttee” platforms are still to be seen, having 
roughly carved figures of men and women standing together 
with hands clasped. While certainly it was a ghastly sys- 
tem, there is a touch of romance in connection with such 
devotion, as is instanced in the story of the immolation of 
Brinhilde on the funeral pyre of Siegfried, 


BURNIN GAG 


The burning ghats are places of absorbing interest. 
Almost at any time one or several dead bodies may be seen, 


fei ivi ING GHATS 359 


either in the last stages of preparation or actually being con- 
sumed on funeral pyres. 

The corpse, clothed in white if a male, or in red if a 
female, is brought down by four cremation undertakers, 
called domri, accompanied by the loud clash of cymbals and 
the shouting of the words ‘““The name of Rama is true,” and 
is then dipped into the water of the Ganges until the body 
is nearly submerged. ‘This is by way of giving the corpse 
the last purifying ablution in the sacred waters. For a 
moment the face is uncovered so that the dead eyes can 
have a last look upon the redemptive stream. 

Meanwhile the mourners are bargaining for fuel. It re- 
quires seven or eight sizable logs, together with smaller 
pieces and fragments, as 2 minimum amount to consume 
a corpse. “The dealer after some haggling gives the wood 
for a half or two thirds of the price first asked and, on 
further importuning, adds a piece of sandalwood upon 
which the head can rest. The amount of wood used is 
proportionate to the means of the relatives, and when only 
a limited amount can be paid for, the body is not always 
completely consumed, and in that case the ashes and rem- 
nants of the body are thrown indiscriminately into the 
Ganges. When the body is that of a wealthy Raja, only 
sandalwood is used and that in great abundance. ‘The fu- 
neral pyres are built with remarkable skill by the domri in 
order to effect the incineration of the entire body. 

The dead bodies are bedecked with flowers after being 
immersed in the Ganges, and some rice and a piece of gold 
(usually a small piece worth about forty cents) is put into 
the mouth of the corpse. “They are then placed upon a 
litter which rests upon the funeral pyre, with the feet to- 
ward the river. Getting the sacred fire from a special 
deputy of the lowest caste (who would not be allowed to 
touch the corpse, as that would mean eternal contamination), 
means another “squeeze” from the mourners. ‘Then a priest 
makes the last prayers for the dead, after which sandal- 
wood and spices are laid upon the corpse. ‘The mourners 


360 INDIA 


encircle the pyre seven times, and then the inflammable 
material is ignited which is specially placed at the head and 
foot. It is only the poor who accompany their own dead, 
to the river, fearing that their supply of wood may be too 
scanty and that unburned portions of the body may be 
thrown in the river, although this often happens. 

The flames flare up swiftly, curling around the body, and 
soon conceal it from view. “The mourners meanwhile sol- 
emnly watch the body being consumed. The domri with 
long tongs keep rearranging the fuel and portions of the 
body so as to complete the cremation process. In an hour, 
or thereabouts, the flames have done their work and the 
ashes are strewn upon the waters of the Ganges. At the 
place where the ashes are thrown natives, usually the domri, 
can be seen with shovels and sieves hoping to recover the 
bits of gold and silver which may have been upon the bodies 
of the dead. 

Yogis, or “holy men” are never burned as it is believed 
that their holy lives have freed their bodies from all gross- 
ness. “The remains of these saints are garlanded and spiced, 
placed in a large earthen urn and consigned to the Ganges. 
Their virtues are supposed to have freed them from rein- 
carnations, and life and death shall know them no more. 

Those who die of smallpox and sometimes of plague, 
instead of being cremated at the burning ghats are hurried 
to the river below the bridge and unceremoniously dropped 
over into the water. 


THE TEMPLES 


The Golden Temple, surrounded by narrow streets, is 
a roofed quadrangle with a dome and a tower at each 
corner. ‘Three of these towers are covered with thick 
sheets of pure gold which time has not tarnished; the other 
one of black marble is covered with images of the gods. 
It is the holiest place in Benares, standing in its very heart 
and is a favourite spot for the leper, the blind and the lame, 


TEMPLES 361 


as well as the “‘saintly” sadhu, or ascetic. No unbeliever is 
allowed to cross the threshold of this temple. The court- 
yard is thick with mud because of the holy water, brought 
from the sources of the Ganges in the Himalayas, which 
has been carried all the way by pilgrims to make this 
specially sacred offering. 

The silver door gives entrance to a plain, black marble 
column decorated with flowers. Within is a central shrine 
holding a white marble emblem of the god Siva. Above are 
four bells, and at the time of greatest interest just after 
sunset, when the service called Arati is in progress, there is 
a noisy combination of bells and voices. 

In the quadrangle is the famous ‘Well of Knowledge,” 
protected by a stone canopy. The worshippers are no longer 
allowed by the British Government to cast flowers, fruit 
and other offerings into it as the place became so unsanitary 
as to be dangerous to health. In this Well the great god 
Siva is supposed to dwell, and there is a fatuous red idol 
here, in a shrine of tinsel and coloured glass. 

The Durga or Monkey Temple, dedicated to the goddess 
Kali, is a rather dingy red sandstone structure and is entered 
by a flight of stairs to the gallery which surrounds it on 
four sides, from which the visitor can inspect the interior. 
It is called ‘‘the Monkey Temple” by Europeans on account 
of the fact that it is infested with a horde of mangy apes. A 
single family of them is said to have come from the forests 
long ago but no one dared to drive them away. Now they 
are everywhere, both on the terraces and various ledges 
above and among the trees in the courtyard. ‘They are 
specially sacred, and visitors are urged by the priestly at- 
tendants to purchase parched corn or rice cakes, of which 
the monkeys are very fond. ‘The shrine is regarded as the 
third most sacred place in Benares and is the only temple 
in the city where sacrifices of blood are still offered. 

In front of the entrance the priests beat a large drum 
three times a day, but most of their time is spent in impor- 
tuning pilgrims and visitors for gifts. In the central por- 


362 INDIA 


tion, supported by carved pillars on a platform raised four 
feet from the ground, the image of the goddess may be 
seen through an open brass-plated door. 

Durga, or Kali, is the terrible wife of Siva, who can only 
be propitiated by blood, and hence goats are constantly being 
sacrificed to the number of scores daily. Her statue is 
frightful, somewhat similar to the one in the Kali Temple at 
Calcutta, and is kept constantly dripping with blood; her red 
tongue, hanging down to her waist, her head covered with 
writhing serpents, and a necklace of human skulls add to her 
ghoulish appearance. 

Everywhere in India the temples of this bloodthirsty 
monster must offer her a constant quota of bloody sacri- 
fices of goats, although in pre-British days they consisted of 
human beings. The priests smear their faces with the blood 
of the sacrifice, and then caper around the carcass with hid- 
eous chanting noises. It is a loathsome place. Everything 
in the interior of this temple is filthy, slimy and sickening 
with vile odours. 

The Blaironath Temple is the place sought by those who 
want to be delivered from the penalty of sins committed 
in holy Benares. Its special god is a thick-set figure in deep 
blue wearing a silver mask and holding a club in his hand. 
Near by is the form of his faithful watch dog. The marble 
porch of this temple is always filled with worshippers, and 
they are freed from their sins by the touch of a peacock 
switch in the hands of the priest. 

The Temple of Annapurna, goddess of Plenty, is a 
big domed building and is the second holiest spot in Benares. 
In the shrine nothing but the golden face of the goddess 
is seen, the rest being buried in flowers. In the courtyard, 
sacred cows and peacocks are in evidence. 

The Nepalese Temple is a two-storied pagoda with wide 
projecting roof and bell-shaped ornaments. Ladies are not 
permitted to enter the Temple on account of the obscene 
phallic carvings. In a small shrine sits Ganga, the deity 
of the hallowed Ganges, perched upon a crocodile. ‘This 


SIGHTSEEING 363 


place reveals the lowest depths to which Hinduism has 
fallen. | | 

The Mohammedan Mosque, probably built by the Mogul 
Emperor Jahangir, has two octagonal minarets 232 feet 
high. ‘The fine columns in front of the Mosque belonged 
to the Siva temple on the same site, which was destroyed, 


Portal AL HAN TS 


Bazaars. Bazaars, on the whole, have rather crude and 
inartistic work in brass, much poorer in workmanship than 
that of former days. There is a pottery bazaar where lotas 
and idols are reproduced. 

A variety of strange-looking dolls may be found, rich silks, 
which are a specialty here, and embroideries, scarfs, and gold 
and silver brocaded silk cloth, but the latter have largely 
lost their pristine artistic beauty and durability in recent 
years. 

Hotels. ‘The two principal hotels are Clark’s and de 
Paris. 

Missions. Important work is being done by the Church 
Missionary Society, the London Mission, the Wesleyan, the 
American Baptist, and the Roman Catholic Missions, 


Tere AHARATA’S PALACE 


A little farther up stream upon the other side of the river 
at Ramnagar is the marble palace of the Maharaja of 
Benares. The Maharaja is very courteous to visitors, espe- 
cially to Americans, and sometimes, if he has knowledge of 
their approach, he will have elephants come down to the 
marble steps of his landing, in order that visitors may be 
carried up the steep banks. The palace is quite a pretentious 
building and visitors are often invited, after registering 
their names, into the state apartments, the floors of which 
are covered with fine rugs, though the furnishings are in 
a rather tawdry European style. The Maharaja’s remark- 


364 INDIA 


able art treasures of embroideries, carved ivories, jewels, 
etc., are often shown to tourists. 

A special dispensation has been granted to those who may 
die at the Palace even though it is on the wrong side of the 
river. ‘This gives to the dying the special privileges which 
are supposed to be associated with the opposite or holy side 
of the Ganges, though usually those who are dangerously 
sick are frantically hurried across the river, as a matter of 
special precaution. 

The Maharaja has, a mile from the Palace, his own Durga 
Temple, a handsome building in a fine garden. Inside the 
garden are some pieces of statuary, including a seated figure 
of Lakshmi, the goddess of good luck. ‘The temple pin- 
nacle is one hundred feet high, and is adorned with a gilded 
pennant. A winged lion guards the shrine, as if to protect 
the altar on which stands Durga, the goddess greedy for 
blood. 

The Maharaja maintains the highest standard required 
by Hinduism. He strictly enforces the requirements of 
caste, as well as the purdah (exclusion of women). Hence 
the mortality of women is said to be fifty per cent. higher 
than that of men since they are so closely shut up, often in 
unsanitary surroundings. 

The Maharaja never touches food which is not prepared 
by one of his own caste, and he drinks only Ganges water. 
He eats his breakfast, after taking a bath in the Ganges in 
a nude condition. His wife never leaves the isolated part 
of the palace, which is guarded by eunuchs armed with 
swords. She has a garden in which she may walk, a large 
enclosure, with a lovely marble pavilion, where in Septem- 
ber a series of mystic plays are given based on the Rama- 
yana, both men and women parts being taken by well- 
trained boys; but it has high walls and she sees only the 
sky, and has never been allowed to cross the river to visit 
the sacred city of Benares. 

The Maharaja is an extraordinarily fine shot and is said 
to have killed one hundred and fifty tigers besides many 


De DY) Ti A 365 


elephants and panthers. When he goes on his hunting expe- 
ditions, he takes one hundred elephants, fifty camels and three 
hundred servants. Usually he has on exhibition on the 
Palace grounds a great man-eating Bengal tiger, confined 
in a barred iron cage, the real rampant jungle beast, fresh 
from his native lair. 


SARNATH 


Sarnath, the site of old Benares, lies five miles north of 
Benares, and was originally called the Deer Park in the 
time of Buddha. His disciples to this day revere this as 
holy ground, because the “Enlightened One” here “turned 
the wheel of the law” (i. e. preached) and unfolded the 
doctrine of Karma (transmigration of souls) and the eight- 
fold path of deliverance. It is a most interesting place for 
the study of religious history, for here Buddha made his 
first five converts and here a series of Buddhist temples were 
built during the centuries following. Of all the different 
world religions, Buddhism has more adherents than any 
other, and in some respects it more closely resembles Chris- 
tianity than does any other. Buddhists still make pilgrim- 
ages to these ruined shrines, although there are now only 
about ten million Buddhists in the whole of India, all but 
four hundred thousand being in Burma. 

The main temple dates from 1100 a.D., having re- 
placed several earlier ones. Here Buddha is supposed to 
have preached his first sermon, and here the full size figure 
of Buddha, now in the Sarnath Museum, was discovered. 

Near by are the remains of the famous Asoka pillar, once 
standing seventy feet high, with its lion capital, now in 
the Museum, which is undoubtedly the finest piece of sculp- 
ture ever produced in India. 

Akbar’s Tower on the top of the small hill, which once 
was three hundred feet high, still bears this inscription on 
its ruins: ‘‘“Akbar resolved to build on this spot a lofty tower 
reaching to the blue sky.” 


366 INDIA 


There is an Archxological Museum at Sarnath with a 
treasure trove of statuary and other remains from the resur- 
rected city, the British Government having spent over $500,- 
ooo in excavation. Here also are the remains of an old 
monastery with twenty-eight cloistered cells opening from a 
central court; also a series of thirty monasteries where in 
645 A.D. there were fifteen hundred priests studying the 
Sacred Law. Sarnath was destroyed by the Moslem invad- 
ers about 1194 A.D. 


THE SEPOY “MU tis 


As a prelude to a visit to Lucknow, Cawnpore and Delhi 
it is well to give a brief survey to the Sepoy Mutiny, which 
was due to several contributing causes: 

The British Government several years before had made 
a rule, that any territory of Native Princes who died with- 
out leaving direct heirs, (no adopted heirs being recognised ) 
should lapse to British control, and five Provinces and their 
revenues were thus taken over. ‘The notorious Nana Sahib, 
the adopted heir of the ruler of Poona, was on this account 
refused £80,000 per annum which his foster father had 
enjoyed. ‘This made all the Princes of the native Provinces 
very much dissatisfied with the high-handed methods of the 
British and the wily Nana Sahib, although still pretending 
to be loyal, was secretly augmenting the discontent. 

In addition, the British Government passed an Act in 
1856, making recruits drafted in Bengal liable to oversea 
service without increase of pay. “The fear of the sea and 
of the “magic” new railways and steamships, and especially 
the dread of losing their caste caused widespread disaffec- 
tion. “The new law of Lord Canning, the Governor Gen- 
eral, that widows might remarry, and his zeal for doing 
everything in the British way, were widely believed to be 
a covert attack on the Hindu religion. An old familiar 
prophecy that had foretold that British rule would terminate 
in 1857, also had its influence. As there were only 45,000 


SePrOoyY* MUTINY 367 


British soldiers and 235,000 Sepoys in India, the time seemed 
ripe to Nana Sahib and his fellow-conspirators to drive the 
British out of the country. 

‘The Mutiny was precipitated, rather than caused, by the 
famous cartridge episode. A new rifle was given to the 
Sepoys, the cartridges of which had been greased by the fat 
of cows,—an animal which the Hindus regard as sacred. 
Although this was denied by the British authorities, it 
hastened the explosion. 

While there were two preliminary mutinies of several 
regiments in February and March, 1857, these were sup- 
pressed and nothing further was done. But on the 1oth of 
May, there was a mutiny near Delhi on a larger scale, 
which involved the murder of some English officers and 
other Europeans. But as no effort seemed to be made by the 
British to capture and punish the offenders, the belief be- 
came widespread that the British rule was confessedly draw- 
ing to a close. 

On May 30th there was a preconcerted uprising on a 
general scale, and the mutineers concentrated at Delhi, 
Cawnpore and Lucknow. Delhi was captured by them, as 
the British Commander had only a handful of men, but the 
English General, Sir H. Barnard, with 3,800 men attacked 
- and defeated a Sepoy army of 30,000 and gained possession 
of the Ridge just outside of Delhi, recapturing the city 
three months later. 

At Cawnpore, Sir H. Wheeler’s small garrison surren- 
dered on June 26th, under a truce that guaranteed a safe 
departure for all, but the British soldiers were massacred 
next day, and the women and children who survived were 
made prisoners, only to be brutally slaughtered soon after- 
ward. 

At Lucknow, a small British force held out against the 
great Sepoy army for four months and finally the survivors 
were rescued by General Havelock, who with 3,000 men 
defeated the rebels all along the line, and entered Lucknow 
in triumph on the 17th of November. 


368 INDIA 


When the Sepoy rebellion had been seemingly suppressed, 
Lord Canning misguidedly annexed the territory of some 
of the Oudh Princes, who, although they had not been very 
loyal, had not participated in the Sepoy rebellion. ‘This 
again stirred up the Princes of the entire region in revolt, 
which was not suppressed until the close of 1858, by which 
time Great Britain had 100,000 English soldiers in India. 

Since the mutiny England’s policy has been to maintain 
a larger proportion of British soldiers. In 1856 it was only 
one sixth; at present it is about one third. In 1916, the 
Europeans in the Army numbered 75,000, while the Indians 
number 163,000. 

It may be added, that English rule since the Mutiny has 
been more just and conciliatory than before that time. 


LUCKNOW 


Lucknow is called the “Garden City” of India. It has 
gilded domes and stately minarets as well as pinnacles, 
mosques, palaces and public buildings. From a distance it 
looks like a dream city. It is the capital of the Oudh 
Province and has a population of 243,553 (1921) of whom 
three-fifths are Hindus. 

It is located on two sides of the river Gumti (or Goomty) 
and has six bridges giving free access from one side of the 
city to the other. 

The Great Imambara consists of a group ofseveral striking 
structures, including the Mosque, together forming an im- 
posing picture. ‘The Imambara, standing on a platform 
approached by eighteen steps, is a single storied building, 
with very large vaulted rooms, the whole being 263 by 143 
feet. The splendour of its interior decoration and its 130 
crystal chandeliers are far famed and it contains one of the 
thrones of the former King of Oudh and a royal divan for 
his wife. In the long central hall is the tomb of Asaf-ud- 
Daulah, the builder, who spent over £1,000,000 in 1784 
in its construction. 


TUNG IND: Oe Ce ee eo t ied ame ee ee ie * 


oC 


ae 








LUCKNOW 369 


The ‘‘Palace of Lights,’’ which is like a lesser Taj 
Mahal, helps to complete the imposing effect. 

The Rumi Darwaza is a magnificent portico near the 
north-west corner of the Mimbar, which has an immense 
amount of sculptured detail and carving. 

The Hosainabad Clock Tower, 220 feet high, the largest 
in India, has an arrangement for illumination and a chime 
of five bells. In the charming garden nearby is the Hosain- 
abad basin, which is well stocked with fish. 

The Jama Mosque is of pure Moslem architecture, with 
an imposing doorway. ‘The interior, as is usual with Mo- 
hammedan mosques, is quite bare. The Mosque has three 
domes and two minarets, and is the finest specimen of Orien- 
tal architecture in Lucknow. 

The Residency is almost a complete ruin, although a 
very noble one. The now peaceful lawns and handsome 
trees surround the old grey ruined tower and make an effec- 
tive picture. It is a place associated with the grim story 
of the Sepoy Mutiny. Here in 1857, on May 30th, 2,994 
people were huddled together on the first day of the mutiny, 
and on September 25th, eighty-six days later, when General 
Havelock and General Outram came, only 979 remained. 
Famine, disease, and battle deaths had disseminated their 
ranks. Here Sir Henry Lawrence, who was in command, 
died at his post. 

A tablet in Dr. Fayrer’s house indicates the room where 
Lawrence died, and in the cemetery by the ruined church 
is the grave enclosed by an iron railing, on which is the 
inscription, ‘““Here lies Henry Lawrence, who tried to do 
his duty. May the Lord have mercy on his soul.” 

It is rather easy to get sated with the story of the Sepoy 
Mutiny in 1857, especially in view of the stupendous trage- 
dies of the recent World War. It is a tale, however, of 
British endurance and heroism that will live. 

The Martiniere is a rambling building, ‘a whimsical 
pile,’ with a large central tower built about 1800. It is 
now one of the best schools in India for the education of 


370 INDIA 


children of European descent, especially for those whose par- 
ents are connected with the British governmental service. 

At the Alambagh (a walled enclosure five hundred yards 
square), three miles away, is the tomb of General Have- 
lock, the hero of the Relief Army, who delivered Cawnpore 
and Lucknow from the invading rebels. He died only a few 
weeks later. The tomb is surmounted by a monument thirty 
feet high and has an inscription stating that his death oc- 
curred November 24, 1857. 

The Provincial Museum is one of the finest in India and 
contains sculptures, partly Buddhist and partly Jain, with 
some fine Brahmin specimens. ‘There are numerous San- 
skrit inscriptions on stone slabs and copper plates. Its 
ethnological collection is extraordinarily fine, giving a re- 
markable exhibit of life-sized figures of men and women 
from every part of the country. All races and types are 
included. A varied display of animals and birds is here 
shown, besides metal work, wood and ivory carving, embroid- 
eries and native textile weaving. 

Bazaars. Here tourists may purchase, among other bits 
of handicraft, the native Chikan (sometimes called 
“chicken” ) embroidery applied to various cotton garments 
and household linens. Silver work, terra-cotta models and a 
great variety of perfumes are also specialties. “The Bazaars 
are not as attractive as in some other cities. 

Hotels. ‘The principal hotels are the Royal, the Grand, 
and the Carlton. 

Churches and Missions. There is the Church Mission- 
ary Society, the Roman Catholic Cathedral and a Metho- 
dist Episcopal Mission. One of the most important in- 
stitutions in India is the Isabella Thoburn College for 
Women which is located at Lucknow. 


CAWNPORE 


Cawnpore is 633 miles from Calcutta and 49 miles from 
Lucknow and has a population (1921) of 213,044. It is 


CAWNPORE 371 


a great centre for harness, shoes and leather work, and is 
rapidly becoming the commercial emporium of Northern 
India, as new industrial enterprises are constantly being 
inaugurated by British manufacturers. ‘There is here an 
unusually large and successful Government Agricultural 
College and Experimental Farm. ‘There are no places of 
tourist interest. 

The events of the Mutiny loom large at Cawnpore. The 
Cantonment in 1857 had only thirty European and 3,000 
Indian soldiers. When the Mutiny broke out they were 
rudely sheltered by a hasty intrenchment in which 900 per- 
sons were huddled, of whom over half were women and 
children. All around were buildings from which the muti- 
neers could keep up a deadly fire. Of fifty-nine artillery 
men only four survived at the time of the surrender and not 
a single square yard was without war scars. 

Nana Sahib, the leader of the mutineers, at a time when 
things inside the intrenchment seemed most desperate, pro- 
posed an armistice, promising safe conduct for the survivors 
to the Ganges with a supply of boats to take them down the 
river. On June 27th, 450 men, women and children, went, 
according to arrangement and embarked in the boats. Then 
a bugle was sounded and a thousand Sepoys hidden along the 
shore opened fire. All were killed except 125 women and 
children, although many of them were wounded, whom 
Nana spared and carried back to Cawnpore. Eight survivors 
were afterward captured and brought back. ‘They were all 
confined in a small building with two rooms. 

When Nana Sahib heard that General Havelock had 
defeated his army and was advancing, he brought out the 
few remaining men and ordered them killed in his presence. 
The Sepoys outside the windows of the two-roomed hut 
who were ordered to shoot the women and children aimed 
at the ceiling instead, but a party of assassins with long 
daggers entered and completed the ghastly work and all the 
bodies were thrown into an adjoining well. Nana Sahib 
went out with his army of 5,000 men to meet General Have- 


372 INDIA 


lock, but was overwhelmingly defeated. In a Garden where 
250 of the garrison were buried during the siege, is a cross 
with a suitable inscription which tells the mournful story. 

In the Memorial Gardens is a mound raised over the 
Well into which the bodies of the massacred victims were 
thrown. Here the well-known Statue has been erected of 
the Angel of the Resurrection and over its arch are these 
words, “These are they which have come out of great 
tribulation.” | 

Hotels. ‘The principal hotel is the Civil and Military. 

Missions. ‘There are a number of missions in Cawn- 
pore,—Christ Church Mission, Woman’s Union Missionary 
Society (American), the Methodist Episcopal Mission and 
those of the Roman Catholic Church. 


AGRA 
THE MOGUL EMPIRE 


It will be well to sketch very briefly the character of the 
Mogul kings who wrote such a large page into the history 
of India. 

Babar, who was the sixth descendant from Timur (known 
also as Tamerlane, the fourteenth century conqueror of 
Western Asia), made a military expedition into India, and 
in 1526 defeated an opposing army of 100,000 with 12,000 
soldiers and made Delhi his capital. 

Humayun, his son, who succeeded him in 1530, was driven 
from his kingdom and took refuge with the Shah of Persia. 
Later he returned to India and was able to regain his king- 
dom, but was killed six months later by falling down a flight 
of stone steps while studying the stars, as he showed more 
aptitude for astronomy than for kingship. 

Akbar, his son, succeeded him in 1556, when only four- 
teen years of age. Iwo years later he moved the capital from 
Delhi to Agra and began to build the Fort. He was the 


MOGUL EMPERORS = 373 


greatest figure of India and one of the outstanding charac- 
ters of the world’s history in the sixteenth century. He 
bulks largely in this survey of the several Mogul capital 
cities. 

Jahangir, his son, ascended the throne in 1605. He styled 
himself ‘Conqueror of the Earth,” but he could not con- 
quer himself, but gave himself over to a drunken and licen- 
tious career. His harem is said to have contained 6,000 
women. 

Shah Jahan, his son, ascended the throne in 1628 when 
thirty-six years of age. He was the builder of the Taj 
Mahal, the Pearl Mosque, the Delhi Palace,—in fact, he 
was the master builder of the Moguls. He also looms up 
prominently in the story of Agra. 

Aurangzeb, his son, seized the throne in 1658, and 
although he spared the life of his deposed father, he put all 
his brothers to death so as to eliminate competitors for the 
throne. He inaugurated a campaign against the Hindus, 
obliterating some of their famous temples, burning their 
sacred books and closing their schools. He also revived the 
discriminating poll tax against non-Mohammedans. He 
reached the age of ninety, dying in 1707, leaving only a 
legacy of crime and disorder. 

From this time on the Empire began to fall to pieces, 
owing to dissensions and wars between the sons of Aurangzeb 
and their degenerate successors. The Empire then passed 
for some decades into a see-saw rule between the Jat Rajas 
and the Mahrattas, after which Lord Lake in 1803 captured 
Agra and it has since remained under British rule, 


AKBAR THE GREAT 


Abkar, the son of the Emperor Humayun, was born in 
1542, and assumed the throne at the age of fourteen. 

He was by far the most impressive figure among the 
Mogul sovereigns. He lived during the reign of Elizabeth 
in England. He was the first master builder of India, and 


374 INDIA 


projected a series of palaces, forts and whole cities which 
showed a most active mind and an indomitable will. He 
was strenuous in physical activity, often walking twenty to 
thirty miles a day, once having ridden 220 miles in two 
days with a relay of horses. Before he reached his majority 
he was already a leader of armies and a conqueror. Akbar 
gradually increased his empire by a series of conquests that 
made him ruler of a large part of India. 

He was, however, not only a great soldier, but a construc- 
tive statesman. He reorganised the courts of judgment, 
proclaimed religious tolerance, established an equitable sys- 
tem of taxes and land revenues, and built some of the great- 
est structures of all times. 

He was accustomed to gather statesmen, scholars, and 
religious leaders about him in order that he might get a 
many-sided point of view. In Fatehpur Sikri, there was a 
Palace of Audience where he assembled representatives of 
every religion,—Jesuits, Brahmins, Jains, Buddhists, Par- 
sees, and Yogis, for a debate on the advantages of their 
respective religions,—a sort of Parliament of Religions. 

Akbar, himself, took the position that no one religion 
could be the solitary depository of divine truth. He, there- 
fore, made a synthetic creed of a “Divine Monotheism,” 
with himself as Vicegerent, that had some admirable ideals. 
It did not, however, survive his reign. He cultivated music, 
arts and letters and encouraged the most sumptuous display 
of dress and ornamentation. ‘To the poor he gave liberally, . 
and was a generous friend, but offenders and rebels were 
summarily dealt with, and it was not unusual for the road 
between Agra and Fatehpur Sikri to be decorated with the 
heads of his enemies. 

He was also catholic in his choice of wives, of whom 
he had seven in good and regular standing, although three 
were especially favoured. He built a palace at Fatehpur 
Sikri for his Turkish queen, Mariam Zamani, which is 
called the “Golden House” because of its rich frescoes in 
gold and colours, also one for his Hindu wife, Birbal, which 


Pee On hHE TAS B75 


is distinctively Hindu in architecture and ornamentation, and 
a third one for his Portuguese Christian wife, which also 
has elaborate designs and geometric traceries. 


AGRA 


Agra is a well-built and attractive city of 185,964 inhabi- 
tants, and is one of the greatest centres of tourist interest 
that the world affords. Probably nowhere else are there such 
a wealth and variety of surpassing artistic structures, which 
have had lavished on them all the proverbial riches of India. 

Agra is 841 miles from Calcutta and 848 miles from Bom- 
bay, thus being almost exactly in the middle of the tour across 
northern India. 

The two great tourist attractions are the Taj Mahal,— 
the glorified Mausoleum built by Shah Jahan, easily the 
world’s greatest architectural masterpiece,—and the ‘‘Fort” 
with its group of royal buildings. 


eee a AoM AH AL. 


The Taj Mahal is a mile below the Fort on the same 
side of the Jumna river. It is a memorial to the Empress 
Argumand Bano Begum, or as her husband, the Emperor 
Jahan preferred to call her, Mumtaz-i-Mahal, the ‘Exalted 
of the Palace,” who died in giving birth to her eighth child. 

Shah Jahan’s sorrow was overwhelming, and within two 
years his hair was whitened, although at the time he was 
only thirty-eight years of age. Each Friday he was wont 
to read the fatiha,—or prayer for the dead at her grave. 
Within four years after her death the plans for the Taj 
were drawn and the beginning of the foundations laid. 

In connection with the plans all the known architects of 
India, Persia, Arabia and Europe were called in for consul- 
tation. ‘There is a difference of opinion whether the larger 
credit for the design of this incomparable monument should 
go to Ustad Isa, who is described as a Byzantine Turk, or 





376 INDIA 


to a certain Italian, Geronimo Verronea, but the interior 
plans are credited in part to the French adventurer, Austin 
de Bordeaux. Much of the actual building was done by the 
master craftsmen from Bagdad, Constantinople and other 
world centres of the Moslem faith. It is interesting to 
remember that this structure was being reared at the very 
time our Pilgrim fathers were building their first log cabins 
at Plymouth. 

The Taj is unquestionably the most perfect creation that 
ever was conceived in the mind of man and actually realised 
in visual form. ‘To visit it is one of the supreme objects of 
travel, and it certainly should be classed as one of the seven 
modern wonders of the world. It never disappoints, and 
usually surpasses all expectations. 

It is overwhelming. ‘The sentiment it awakens is not 
admiration,—it is rather the dazzling effect of a sudden 
vision, the visualising of all that is beautiful and holy and 
lovable. It seems too absolutely perfect to be real, too super- 
latively beautiful to be true. It is as though some magical 
power had let a mirage down from heaven which would 
vanish on nearer approach. It fills the beholder with an 
exaltation and exultation of spirit like treading on air. 
Every step as one approaches adds to the wondrous vision, 
the half-way platform inside the garden showing the re- 
flected glory of the ‘I'aj in the placid water of the elongated 
marble basins at one’s feet. 

Its size is lost in its exquisite proportion, its restful purity 
of outline, its transcendent grace and symmetry, which quite 
baffle analysis and description. “The great vaulted alcoves 
seem fairly quivering with sensitive shadows. Although so 
fragile and gossamer-like, it is withal nobly dignified and 
queenly feminine. Certainly, no other structure on earth 
has had so many panegyrics expended upon it by travellers 
and poets, and yet the visitor feels that they have failed to 
do it justice. 

Shah Jahan had much of the genius in embellishing the 
Mogul Empire with nobie architectural creations, which his 


Poe TAS MAHAL B77 


grandfather Akbar had, even though he had not his mas- 
tery as a conqueror. In fact, as a builder Shah Jahan 
stands supreme. He “built like a giant, and finished like a 
jeweller.” He has given Agra the royal place on the map 
of artistic creations. He also erected the Palace and the 
Jama Mosque at Delhi, the Pearl Mosque in the Agra Fort, 
and many other world masterpieces of architecture. 

The Taj was built as a glorified expression of his great 
sorrow in connection with the death of his favourite wife, 
the “Exalted of the Palace,” who had died within two years 
after his accession to the throne. The King announced 
that he would build a mausoleum to her memory that would 
eclipse all that the world had ever seen. Hence this peerless 
structure not only gives an ideal realisation of his lofty pur- 
pose, but the romantic sentiment that is forever associated 
with the building adds not a little to its piquancy and charm. 

The Taj is a composite representing a great art epoch. 
The fact that it was set in a Garden, which is in such per- 
fect harmony with the structure, is according to the usage 
and sentiment of the time. The rich vegetation with the 
lavishly green effect only to be found in Eastern gardens, 
the brilliant flowers, the tall cypresses that border the crys- 
tal pools on either side,—all tend to idealise the noble setting 
of the Taj. The garden that was the favourite haunt in 
life was often chosen as the spot of interment. So in this 
case 


“And she who loved her garden lieth now 
Lapped in a garden; 
And all this for love!” 


“The marble, spotless in purity, which makes up the 
building material, was brought from Jaipur, 150 miles away, 
on the backs of elephants and in carts. ‘The red sand- 
stone of the enclosing walls and secondary structures was 
contributed by Fatehpur Sikri, the jasper by the Punjab, 
and the crystal and jade by China. ‘The turquoises came 
from Tibet and the Red Sea; the sapphires and lapis-lazuli 


378 INDIA 


from Ceylon; the coral and carnelian from Arabia; the 
onyx and amethyst from Persia, and the diamonds from 
Bundelkund.” 

It took twenty thousand men seventeen years to build the 
Taj, and it was done by forced and often unrequited 
labour. It is estimated that the cost at the time of building 
the structure must have been at least $20,000,000, which 
if it were built now would be multiplied many times. 

Taken as a whole, it is so perfect that nothing seems 
lacking, and yet nothing could be added without marring 
the absolute symmetry. It is ‘“‘perfectly simple” in its de- 
sign and treatment, but at the same time “simply perfect.” 

The Taj would not attract in our modern age because 
of its size, especially in these days of such mammoth struc- 
tures as the Woolworth Building in New York. ‘The fas- 
cination lies in the flawless and precious materials, the ex- 
quisite workmanship and the noble proportions of the 
structure. 

To see this combined glory of garden and tomb by sun- 
rise or sunset, with a glowing background colouring the 
divine picture, is a memorable experience, but spending a 
long evening until after midnight with a full silver moon 
casting a fairy-like glamour over the scene, becomes one of 
life’s supreme events. It is an enchanted garden, the air 
of which is charged with the fragrance of mystical flowers, 
enclosing a radiant ivory palace with its domed halls and 
turreted minarets. 

The second story of the great entrance Gateway gives a 
particularly good view of the Taj, although it is well here 
and elsewhere to avoid giving offence to the swarms of hor- 
nets that have chosen to make their nests within the sacred 
precincts. 

The Taj has been vandalised in the past by many piratical 
marauders. When the Jats took Agra they had a loot-fest, 
carrying away the solid silver entrance gates with their 
thousands of silver nails, each one having a silver rupee for 
a head. ‘These silver entrance doors and the inner door of 


meee Ay OM AMAL 379 


the Taj, which consisted of a large monolith of agate, to- 
gether with the gold spire and crescent and the priceless 
rugs, have all disappeared. One of the early English com- 
manders, Lord William Dentinck, actually considered an 
offer from a rich Hindu of £30,000 for the Taj, who prob- 
ably would have torn it down and carried away the materi- 
als for building purposes. 

Champagne suppers by moonlight, including dancing to 
military music on the great Pavilion, have been given on 
a number of occasions, all of which naturally jarred upon 
the sensibilities of Mohammedans, who regard the Tomb 
and the adjoining Mosque as sacred precincts. In fact, in 
the old Mohammedan days it was regarded too sacred to 
look upon, and visitors were blindfolded until they reached 
the place of prayer. “Today all Mohammedans remove their 
shoes, and men visitors take off their hats in the Taj interior. 

Shah Jahan’s purpose was to construct his own mauso- 
leum on the other side of the Jumna river, just opposite the 
Taj, and make it a replica, save that it was to be built of 
dark coloured marble and on a much larger scale. Part 
of the plan was to join the two mausolea by spanning the 
river with a magnificent marble bridge. 

The foundations were actually laid and some materials 
gathered, but during a severe illness, his son Aurangzeb, in 
1657, thirty years after the death of the “Lady of the 
Taj,” secured control of the army, made his father a pris- 
oner and assumed the throne, thus interrupting Shah 
Jahan’s plans of building a separate mausoleum for himself. 
Any sympathy, however, that might be expended upon Shah 
Jahan in his imprisonment by his son, will be somewhat 
tempered if it is known that in his early life he had mur- 
dered his own brother in order to make his throne secure. 

For nine years, until his death, he was confined in the 
Fort just under and perhaps in the Jasmine Tower, where, 
however, he was solaced by the devotion of his faithful 
daughter, Jahanara. The beautiful vista of the Jumna 
river, crowned by the vision of the Taj, so replete with 


380 INDIA 


sacred memories of his old-time love, was ever before his 
eyes. He was seventy-five years old when he died and his 
last expressed word was the wish to look once more upon 
the spot where the body of his Beloved was lying. His 
cenotaph, instead of being in the proposed separate mauso- 
leum, is to the left of that of his wife, the unexpected addi- 
tion somewhat spoiling the proportions, but giving the mind 
the feeling of the fitting union in death as in life, of these 
two great figures of an historic love. 

The bodies themselves, however, are not in the visible 
cenotaphs but in a vault deep below the floor, reached by 
a descending staircase in the first hall, the positions agreeing 
with the cenotaphs in the mausoleum above. 

The echoes of the interior of the Taj are very unusual, 
as the same sound seems to give variations of pitch. Every 
musical tone yields prolonged silvery echoes with multiplied 
overtones, suggestive of an invisible angelic orchestra. Peo- 
ple who are sentimental assert that a woman’s voice will 
continue an echo longer and make more melodious effects 
than will the voice of a man. 

The British Government has repaired the Taj, substi- 
tuting pieces of coloured glass for the diamonds, emeralds, 
rubies and other precious stones, which were filched from 
their settings by Jats and Mahrattas as well as by British 
officers and soldiers before the time of the Mutiny. 

Yet as a whole, the Taj is in a state of wonderful pres- 
ervation, both the exterior and interior looking as pure and 
faultless as though it had been erected but yesterday by some 
bit of subtle magic. 

By sunrise or moonlight or even at high noon, it is an 
intoxicating witchery, that enthralls the beholder, and makes 
the memory of the Taj a romance and an inspiration. 


DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE TAJ 


The great battlemented wall that surrounds the garden 
is most imposing, being 971 feet east and west and 412 feet 


AVEVIN IVE dot 








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DESCRIPTION 381 


north and south, and the red sandstone structures at the 
four corners increase the effect of stately proportions. 

The main gateway is a three-storied structure 151 by 
117 feet, its height being 100 feet and that of its minarets 
161 feet, the whole resting on a stone platform 211 feet 
square. 

The great entrance (Jilan Khana), framed with white 
and black decorations and inscriptions from the Koran, 
welcomes the “pure in heart” to enter “the gardens of 
Paradise.’ ‘The characters of this Arabic script are so 
graduated, that they look the same size at the top as at the 
bottom. 

The entrance has a double gate ten and a half feet wide, 
made from eight different metals alloyed together. ‘The 
original gates, carried away by the Jats, are said to have 
been of solid silver. 

The Taj Garden has four main parts subdivided te wide 
pathways and each of these is again subdivided into four 
divisions, making sixteen in all. Everywhere there are 
superb trees. In the northeast corner of the garden is a 
simal tree, eighteen and three-fourths feet in circumference, 
which was standing long before the Taj was built. 

There are several great marble basins, one of which is 
seventy-five feet long, each with fountains set in marble 
enclosures. In the middle between these basins is a large 
raised marble platform, from which a splendid view of the 
Taj and of the Garden in every direction may be had. The 
setting, as one looks over the complete scene with the red 
sandstone Mosque on the west corner of the garden, and 
the ‘‘Response,” a similar and complementary structure on 
the east corner, with the majestic Taj in the middle, and 
with glimpses of the winding Jumna river and the back- 
ground of the glowing sunset sky,—together make one of 
the most surpassing of pictures, and as one looks, the ad- 
miration of the wonderful perfection grows. 

As one draws nearer to the Taj, the effect actually seems 
heightened because the exquisite relief carving on panels and 


382 INDIA 


borders, and the inlaid work of the ornamental designs, set 
in semi-precious stones, have the perfection of a jewelled 
casket. Forty varieties of carnelian alone are said to be 
used in these floral designs, and fourteen chapters of the 
Koran (not the whole Koran, as is sometimes asserted), are 
inscribed in the borders of the Taj in this perfect jewelled 
inlaid work. 

A great marble basement, 313 feet square on which the 
Taj is built, is eighteen and a half feet above the terrace, 
and rests upon a still larger red sandstone foundation. 

There are four minarets entirely of perfect marble, look- 
ing like majestic sentinels, one at each end of the octag- 
onally projected corner of the marble platform. One can 
climb to the pavilion of these minarets by going up 154 
steps to the balcony, rising 141 feet above the garden level, 
and get a perfectly intoxicating view. 

The Taj itself is entirely of white marble and is 186 
feet square, with a maximum height at the spike on the 
central dome of 243 feet above the garden. ‘The dome itself 
is fifty feet in diameter and has profuse floral ornamentation. 

As one enters the enchanted interior filled with a soft 
cathedral light, the eye immediately falls upon the octagonal 
screen which encircles the two white sarcophagi, although 
these are said to have been originally enclosed by a railing 
of gold inlaid with jewels. Nothing, however, could be 
more exquisite than this perforated screen of seemingly 
translucent alabaster with its lace-like figures and carvings, 
giving the impression of airy unreality. It has justly re- 
ceived encomiums as a very perfect artistic creation. 

The Mumtaz Cenotaph is profusely decorated and bor- 
dered with Koran inscriptions, including the ninety-nine 
names of God inscribed in Persian, together with tributes 
to the Beloved’s virtues, and giving the date as 1629 A.D. 
This Cenotaph was originally decorated with a wealth of 
pearls, but even now it is a triumph of artistic perfection 
and its inlaid jewelled flowers of narcissi, lilies and irises, 
are of exquisite workmanship. A handsome bronze lamp, 


DESCRIPTION 383 


presented by Lord Curzon, which is inlaid with gold and 
silver, hangs above the Mumtaz Centopah. The Shah 
Jahan Cenotaph has the date of 1666 a. Dp. 

The Mosque. ‘The Mosque (Masjid), 186 by 52 feet, 
large enough to accommodate 600 worshippers, is on the 
west corner of the Taj wall, and is an arcaded cloister on 
a raised platform, with a two story octagonal tower. ‘The 
Jamet Khana, or “Response,” on the east is an exact replica 
of the Mosque. It was used as a place where people con- 
gregated who were invited to join in the urs, the religious 
ceremony on the anniversary of the death of the ‘‘Lady of the 
aie 

The staircase from the north wing descends to the river 
connecting with a passage that is said to have been a part 
of a tunnel that once joined the Taj with the Fort a mile 
distant. 

There are fourteen basement rooms on the river side of 
the great basement, upon which the Taj is built, reached by 
two staircases. “They were originally decorated with fres- 
coes, but are now dark and unattractive. 


pee AGRA FORT 


This is the largest group of connected buildings ever 
erected in India, or, for that matter, in the world. The Fort 
is in the shape of a crescent and its walls and some of its 
structures are built of red sandstone quarried at Fatehpur 
Sikri. It is located on the west side of the Jumna river, 
the same side on which the Taj stands. 

The Fort was originally called Akbarabad, after its royal 

promoter. It is still in a remarkable state of preservation 
and represents the accumulated building of Akbar, his son 
Jahangir, and of his grandson, Shah Jahan, the latter two 
being responsible for the marble edifices found inside the 
Fort. 

Akbar planned three courts with their associated galleries 
and apartments; one for the Imperial Guard, the second 


384. INDIA 


for the Minister of State and other officials, and the third 
for the seraglio, or harem quarters. In the latter were also 
the Emperor’s apartments, and here he lavished a limitless 
wealth of artistic and gorgeous decorations. 

Delhi Gate. The Outer Wall is forty feet high and a 
mile and a half in circumference. Encircling this Outer 
Wall is a moat thirty feet wide and thirty-five feet deep, 
originally having had drawbridges connecting with the four 
great gates. The principal entrance at present is the Delhi 
Gate on the south side of the Wall, sometimes spoken of 
as the Elephant Gate, because of the two large stone ele- 
phants with their riders that stood on the highest platform 
on either side of the entrance. ‘They were mutilated and 
buried by the Emperor Aurangzeb, because of his fanatical 
zeal in the literal interpretation of the Koran’s prohibition 
of paintings and graven images. 

This Delhi, or Elephant Gate, consists of an entrance be- 
tween two octagonal red sandstone towers, three stories high, 
through which one passes into a central domed hall, enriched 
with white marble decorations. A staircase leads to the 
roof where the fine view includes the interior of the Fort, 
as well as the city of Agra and the entire range of the 
horizon. From the Delhi Gate one proceeds to a gateway 
of the Inner Wall, which is seventy feet high and has im- 
posing ramparts and gateways and also sixteen bastions. 

Pearl Mosque. Continuing about a fifth of a mile fur- 
ther and ascending two flights of stairs, the visitor comes 
to Shah Jahan’s Pearl Mosque (Moti Masjid), having ex- 
ternal measurements of 234 by 187 feet, including the Court. 
A handsome portal opens into the courtyard, in which is an 
artistic sun dial placed on an octagonal marble pedestal, 
together with a central basin thirty-eight feet square for 
ablutions, having a marble fountain at the centre. 

The Mosque itself is 142 by 52 feet, and has three grace- 
ful minarets. ‘There are three rows of seven arches resting 
on solid pillars. Beautifully carved and fretted screens on 
either side protected the women worshippers from observa- 


Peed RAF ORT 385 


tion, there being from this spot several flights of stairs and 
corridors which originally led to the harem. 

_ The building is an exquisite white throughout, save that 
the floor is inlaid with designs of blue and pale yellow. To 
the right is the Mimbar or pulpit. An inscription on the 
black slate extending across the facade mentions that Shah 
Jahan finished the Mosque in 1645. 

The roof affords a fine view, which includes the Taj, 
the mausoleum of Itmad-ud-Daulah across the river, the 
tomb of Akbar, six miles distant at Sikandra, together with 
a glimpse of the towers of Fatehpur Sikri, twenty-four miles 
away. 

The Great Court is an open space 600 by 370 feet, shaded 
with trees, where court functions were held. It is sur- 
rounded by high brick walls supporting arcades where the 
Imperial Guard stood, while the roofs around the Court 
were often crowded with spectators. 

The Hall of Public Audience (Diwan-i-Am), 192 by 62 
feet, has a series of elaborate pillars and arches which are 
covered with white stucco and gilt. The corners have a 
group of four pillars, and there are fourteen double columns 
along each of the open spaces. 

The Imperial Balcony is a marble recess in the Hall of 
Public Audience which originally had silver steps and was 
adorned with four lions of silver set with jewels. Over- 
head was a canopy of pure gold. On either side were 
fretted marble windows through which the harem ladies 
could see without being seen. When all the princes and 
nobles were assembled here on state occasions it surely was 
an imposing spectacle. 

Passing through the Inner Bazaar where the women of 
the royal harem could shop, and the Gem Mosque (Nagina 
Masjid) which was reserved for women, the visitor comes 
into the small apartment where the Emperor Shah Jahan, 
after being deposed by his son, is supposed to have been con- 
fined, although some writers assert that he had the use of 
the whole Jasmine Palace and Tower. Through the 


386 INDIA 


screened window the prisoner could look out over the river 
Jumna to the Taj Mahal beyond. 

The Fish Palace had a central tank, originally set amid 
beautiful surroundings, whose decorations and marble 
screens were carried away by vandalising English officials. 
A wonderful pavilion of green marble was also sent to Eng- 
land and used for building materials. In this sumptuous. 
fishing palace the Emperor and his court were wont to in- 
dulge in Izaak Walton’s favourite recreation. 

In front of the Fish Palace was the Throne Palace which 
originally had a marble roof that was carried away by the 
Jats. It has two thrones, one of white marble and the 
other of black slate. ‘The white throne was occupied by the 
court jester, and on the black one the Emperor on special 
occasions was seated. “The Terrace was constructed by the 
Emperor Jahangir, and here he was wont to witness the 
animal fights in the east enclosure below. 

The King’s Baths are at the northern end of the Throne 
‘Terrace, and are handsomely decorated with marble mosaics 
of bright colours and gold. Copper pipes supplied the elab- 
orate suite of bathrooms. 

The Hall of Private Audience (Diwan-i-Khas) consists 
of an outer room 73 by 33 feet, and an inner room, 40 by 
26 feet, which are decorated in white with arches overlaid 
with gold. It was used by the Emperor to receive royal or 
distinguished personages. Originally heavy silk hangings 
were suspended between the two rooms. Both rooms were 
richly decorated in coloured floral designs, having in the 
old days all manner of semi-precious stones like jade, lapis- 
lazuli, carnelian and others. The inner room has wonder- 
ful marble window screens, and is richly decorated with 
mosaic. Gold and silver lamps were suspended from the 
ceiling. 

The Jasmine Palace (Samman Mahal) is especially 
lovely. It was built by Jahangir for his favourite wife, 
Nurjahan, who herself made the design for the exquisite 
inlay work. Afterwards his son, Shah Jahan, lived here 


FORT STRUCTURES | 387 


with the “Queen of his heart” for a brief period until her 
death. The Court, 44 by 33 feet, is encircled by several 
suites. In the quadrangle the floor was paved in a special 
design so that the royal circle could play parchesi with living 
nautch girls serving as the discs. 

The Jasmine Tower (Samman Burj) is one of the finest 
examples of the work of Shah Jahan, and its octagonal bal- 
cony gives a memorable view of the winding Jumna river 
with its vista of bridges, the Taj only a mile away being 
in superb perspective. ‘The elaborately inlaid walls contain 
several pockets for jewels and valuables in which only the 
slenderest hand and wrist of a woman could reach. Here 
the captive emperor probably spent the last nine years of 
his life with his favourite daughter Jahanara as his devoted 
attendant. 

Near by is the small Hall of Mirrors (Shish Mahal) 
with an inset of pieces of mirrors in the walls and ceiling. 
This was part of the group of two halls with a marble tank 
in the centre, the suite serving as Turkish bath and dressing 
- room to the harem. 

Passing through the courtyard, 220 by 169 feet, encircled 
by cloisters which were occupied by harem members, one 
comes to the Private Palace (Khas Mahal) consisting of 
three white marble pavilions, where the principal imperial 
ladies had their quarters. The decorations were of gold 
and colours and the portraits of all the Mogul emperors, 
beginning with Timur, were in its walled niches. The 
middle hall was a socia! room where Shah Jahan made after- 
noon conversational calls on the fair occupants. “The escape 
channel for the water in the basin of the chief court is a 
superb piece of zigzag inlay. 

The Jahangir Mahal or Palace, which Jahangir erected 
for his Hindu mother and his Hindu wife (the mother of 
Shah Jahan), is a very imposing structure. Every square 
foot of pillars, walls and ceilings was richly decorated with 
coloured stones and gold leaf. Its exterior dimensions are 
261 by 288 feet, and it consists of halls, baths, a library and 


388 INDIA 


a group of living rooms having a central court seventy-six 
feet square. Looting, neglect and a poor quality of sand- 
stone have robbed this palace of some of its pristine charm. 
In front of it was found a monolith basin of porphyry five 
feet high, with a circumference of twenty-five feet. 

There are other apartments and buildings inside the Fort, 
like the Palace of Shah Jahan, which are of somewhat 
lesser interest, although found anywhere else they would be 
regarded as gems of artistic construction. 

Underneath these palaces is a complicated labyrinth of 
underground passages and cool places of refuge from the 
summer heat, and also gloomy prisons, where those who met 
the disfavour of the emperor were confined, and after their 
execution their bodies were thrown into the river Jumna 
which flows at the base of the Fort. 

The British Government has been at considerable expense 
(even though imitations have been used) in replacing the 
inlay of carnelian, amethyst, agate, lapis-lazuli, jasper, and 
other semi-precious stones, which were pilfered by conscience- 
less soldiers and officials, as well as by tourists, and now 
maintains guards to try to prevent such spoliation. 


THE MAUSOLEUM OF ITMAD- 
UD-DAULAH 


This mausoleum was built by Nurjahan, the wife of 
Jahangir, in memory of her father who was a Persian ad- 
venturer. Jahangir made him Prime Minister and changed 
his name to Itmad-ud-Daulah, or ‘‘Reliance of the State.” 
The Tomb is situated on the opposite side of the Jumna 
river from the Fort. While it is small and cannot compare 
with the Taj, it is dignified by four dazzling towers at 
each corner,. the whole edifice being of the purest marble 
with exquisite inlays of floral and geometrical designs. ‘This 
is the first use in India of the pietra dura which originally 
came from Italy. It is made by inserting thin layers of pre- 
cious or semi-precious stones into white or black marble sur- 


SIKANDRA 389 


faces, this being done with marvellous precision. The ter- 
race roof around the upper story of the marble reliquary 
presents much of this kind of work, together with some 
superb carving in relief. ‘This scheming Prime Minister, 
who was so familiar with stratagems and assassinations, 
hardly deserves a memorial of such artistic design and ex- 
quisite lace-work ornamentation. 

The room which has the Cenotaphs of the ‘Reliance of 
the State” and that of his wife is entrancingly beautiful. 


AKBAR’S TOMB AT SIKANDRA 


Sikandra, five miles from Agra, is the Arabic equivalent 
for Alexander, and it relates to the invasion of India by 
Alexander the Great. 

Here is found the Mausoleum of Akbar, one of the most 
impressive structures in India. It was begun by Akbar and 
finished by his son, Jahangir. ‘The whole enclosure has an 
area of 120 acres, having high walls which extend 2,316 feet 
on each of the four sides. 

‘The main gateway is itself an imposing building, richly 
decorated, having four minarets of white marble, rising 
eighty-six and a half feet above the roof. 

Akbar died in 1605, and while he was a Mohammedan, 
his body was not pointed toward Mecca, but toward the ris- 
ing sun. 

The mammoth Gateway opens into a large Court re- 
vealing a massive pillared structure whose upper terrace, 
pierced with marble screen walls, shows an elaborately 
carved sarcophagus, which is exposed to the sky, because 
the proposed marble canopy was never completed by his 
successors. “Ihe real tomb containing the remains of Akbar, 
however, is very primitive, and is found at the end of a 
sloping passageway. 

It is asserted by some writers that in the carved pedestal 
of his Cenotaph was set the famous Kohinoor diamond, 
which has had so spectacular a history since it was first 


390 LN Dies 


stolen. Over this pedestal was originally a gold and silver 
canopy. 


FATEHPUR SIKRI 


Fatehpur Sikri, which means ‘a city of Victory,” was 
built as the result of a visit by Akbar to a certain Sheik 
Salim Chisti, who lived in an adjoining cave. The king 
came to ask the intercession of this hermit “saint” for an 
heir, as he was childless. He expressed his gratitude when 
an heir was born, by building his capital by the same cave. 
Later on when the city was finished and the “‘saint” com- 
plained of the noises, and was himself unwilling to change 
his place of abode, the king moved his capital back to Agra, 
and Fatehpur Sikri became a deserted city. While this 
story has a whimsical interest, the real reason of the re- 
moval was probably the superior attractions of Agra. 

An auto trip of twenty-four miles to this silent and de- 
serted city gives an excellent opportunity to study the primi- 
tive rural life and the agricultural methods along the way. 
Fatehpur Sikri is six miles in circumference, a high wall 
protecting it on three sides, having a number of towers and 
seven gateways. [he fourth side was guarded by an arti- 
ficial lake seven miles long and two miles wide, which has 
since been drained. 

‘The places of special interest in this capital of Akbar may 
be stated in a brief outline. 

The Gate of Victory (Buland Darwaza) is one of the 
most impressive in existence, standing 176 feet above the 
roadway. It is studded with horseshoes from the horses of 
the enemy killed in the battle of Deccan. ‘The most strik- 
ing feature of this gateway is an inscription on the east 
side of the central archway, a part of which reads, “Isa [the 
Arabic form of Jesus] on whom be peace, said, “The world 
is a bridge; pass over it but build no house there. ‘The 
world is but an hour; spend it in devotion, ‘The rest is 


999 
unseen. 





MAN DIVING EIGHTY FEET 
AT FATEHPUR SICRI 


PEARL MOSQUE AT AGRA 


Author in the foreground 








FPaAlrEAPUOUR'SIKRI 391 


Another inscription on the west side, not attributed to 
Jesus, but suggestive of His teaching, reads, “He that stand- 
eth up to pray and his heart is not in his duty, does not draw 
nigh to God, but remaineth far from Him. ‘Thy best 
possession is what thou has given in alms, thy best traffic 
is selling this world for the next.” 

The Tomb of Sheik Salim Chisti is in the court of the 
Jama Mosque (Jama Masjid). He is the holy man who 
prompted Akbar’s decision to build the city. It is quite 
small, but is one of the most exquisite of India’s architec- 
tural creations. ‘The interior is richly decorated with the 
finest filigree designs, and the Cenotaph itself is overlaid 
with the richest mother-of-pearl arranged in superb and in- 
tricate geometrical figures. The Mohammedan women of 
today attach bits of cloth to the bars of the marble screen 
as a mute prayer for a son, which includes a pledge to bring 
an offering to the shrine, if the prayer is answered. 

The Tomb of Islam Khan, the grandson of Salim 
Chisti, at one time a Governor of Bengal, adjoins the Tomb 
-of his grandfather and is larger, but less beautiful. It was 
built by the Emperor Jahangir. 

The Panch Mahal is a structure of five stories, each con- 
sisting of a pillared hall smaller than the one underneath, 
the fifth being a sort of spiked dome. All of the 185 pillars 
are profusely carved. It probably was used as an outlook 
and social centre for the harem ladies and as a playground ~ 
for the children. On the upper wall, men sometimes are 
waiting to make, for a few annas, the jump of eighty 
feet into a pool thirty feet deep, which formerly was part 
of a moat. Several of these are old, feeble-looking men, 
who nevertheless show surprising agility and daring. 

The Palace of Audience (Diwan-i-Khas) is a unique 
structure with a great central pillar which is richly decorated 
and supports two intersecting beams, also richly carved. 
Here Akbar met his councillors in matters of state, and also 
the scholars and religious leaders, with whom he wished 
to discuss religion and philosophy. 


392 INDIA 


The Palace of Mariam Zamani, Akbar’s Hindu wife, 
and mother of his son Jahangir, is also called ‘“The Golden 
House,” because all parts of the palace were in gold and 
colours with representations of Rama, the seventh incar- 
nation of Vishnu. 

There are many features of interest, such as the Hall of 
Special Audience, the Palace of Akbar’s Mohammedan wife, 
the House of Dreams, the Zenana Baths, the Ladies’ Mosque, 
and many others, 


GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT 
AGRA 


Bazaars. ‘The chief centre of shopping is the Johri 
Bazaar. Agra is especially noted for its inlay work of 
coloured stone and marble, and its carvings in sandstone, 
marble and alabaster. Ornamental carved and inlaid ink 
stands, jewel boxes, stone dishes and trays, and thousands 
of miniature marble imitations of the Taj are on sale. Agra 
is also distinguished for its silk and velvet embroideries in- 
volving the use of silk, silver and gold thread. It is one of 
the chief cities noted for Indian carpets and rugs, some of 
purely Hindu designs and some introduced from Persia. 

Hotels. The Cecil and Laurie’s Hotels, both excellent, 
are under the same management. ‘There is also the Metro- 
pole Hotel. ‘These are all about a mile from the Fort 
Railway Station. 

Churches. The three Anglican Churches are St. 
George’s, Havelock Chapel, and St. Paul’s. ‘There are also 
two Roman Catholic Churches,—St. Mathias and the 
Cathedral. 

Among the Missions are the Baptist and the Methodist. 
St. John’s College is doing a valuable work and is the most 
important institution of the Church Missionary Society in 
India, with about 400 students, not counting preparatory 
pupils. 

Hospitals. ‘The Thomason Hospital for men and the 


THE DELAI PALAGE 393 


Dufferin for women, each have over 500 beds. There is 
also a Medical School with 800 students. 

The Agra College has 600 students and is affiliated with 
Allahabad University. 


BAe IEA bat 


Delhi is now the capital of India and is a city of 304,420 
inhabitants (1921), situated on the banks of the Jumna 
river. Here Nadir Shah, the Persian, butchered a hundred 
thousand people, almost the entire population, and this mas- 
sacre was even exceeded by Timur and the Mahrattas. 

It is now a progressive city famous for its shops, as well 
as for its objects of sightseeing interest. At the great Dur- 
bar held here in 1877, Lord Lytton proclaimed Queen 
Victoria as Empress of India, and in the greater Durbar in 
1903, in connection with a splendid procession, Lord Curzon 
proclaimed King Edward VII Emperor of India. The 
Government of India has its new buildings to the sout’ and 
_ west. A new Government House and Secretariat hav. been 
completed, and a residential section for officers and clerks 
has been constructed, together with a new Cantonment. 

The main thoroughfare is Chandni Chank, or “Silver 
Square,” over a mile long, a street of bazaars together with 
beautiful public buildings, which make a contrast of splen- 
dour with the filth and squalour of much of the city. The 
entrance to the street is the red sandstone gateway of Shah 


Jahan’s Fort. 
THE PALACE 


This is a2 remarkable monument of Shah Jahan’s vanity 
and selfish extravagance. No other monarch ever sat on 
any throne in any palace so dazzlingly sumptuous as was 
this in Delhi. ‘The Palace can be entered either by the 
Lahore Gate on the east or the Delhi Gate on the south. 
Passing under the grand archway of the Lahore Gate, the 


394 INDIA 


usual entrance, and going through a vaulted archway, one 
comes into the Great Court, 540 by 360 feet. ‘Thirty 
Europeans, who had taken refuge here, were massacred by 
the Sepoys during the mutiny. 

On the farther side is the superb Hall of Public Audi- 
ence (Diwan-i-Am), one hundred by sixty feet, which is 
open on three sides, and has several rows of sandstone pil- 
lars and panels of Florentine mosaic on a black marble 
background. Its ceiling, columns and arches are perhaps 
the finest to be found in India. On the back was a throne 
on the raised platform, where the Emperor was accustomed 
to sit during formal public occasions. 

The Hall of Private Audience (Diwan-i-Khas) is a 
white marble pavilion on the river wall open on four sides, 
—the most gorgeous and royal hall not only in India but 
in all the world. It has massive columns ornamented with 
gold capitals and elaborate designs of inlaid semi-precious 
stones. The ceiling is a climax of golden glory. ‘The 
colonnades make a marvellous vista of white and gold. 
Under the floor of the hall ran an artificial stream of water 
over an alabaster bed which served to cool the terrace when 
the king was present. ‘The side of the pavilion facing the 
river is filled with exquisite lattice work in marble. The 
marble screen in this hall is one of the most artistic pieces 
of work extant, with exquisite refinement in every detail. 

“If there is on earth an Eden of bliss, it is this, it is this, 
it is this,” is the fitting inscription written in decorative 
inlay on the walls,—fitting that is to say, if dazzling beauty 
and wealth could insure happiness. 

The Peacock Throne received its name from the fact 
that its back consisted of two peacocks with spread tails, 
the whole so inlaid with sapphires, rubies, emeralds and 
pearls as to represent the colours of life. Some people say 
that the famous Kohinoor diamond was used for one of the 
eyes of the peacock, while others assert that it was filched 
from the Cenotaph of Akbar at Sikandra, The latter view 
is probably the correct one. 


Peo OCK, THRONE . 395 


The Throne itself was a low, square platform, or dais, 
six by four feet, and stood on six massive feet of solid gold 
inlaid with rubies, emeralds and diamonds. ‘The canopy of 
gold above was supported by twelve pillars heavily em- 
blazoned with precious stones, the edges of the canopy being 
fringed with pearls. A figure of a parrot, said to be shaped 
from a single emerald, stood at the top of the throne between 
the peacocks. It may, however, have been only an un- 
usually fine piece of jade. The platform on which the 
throne stood is still visible. 

The Persian conqueror, Nadir Shah, carried off all these 
treasures, together with nine other lesser thrones, and other 
loot, the total value of which was well over a quarter of a 
billion of dollars, although it was scattered over Asia soon 
after, when Nadir Shah was murdered by the Kurds. Later 
some of the native kings of Delhi and their retinue helped 
to rob the inlay work of its precious stones. Some of the 
later English officials also acted as brigands, a certain Sir 
John Jones having taken out the platform of the throne and 
cut it into sections to sell for table tops in England, one of 
_ which brought this titled pirate the sum of $2,500. 

This Throne Room, together with various halls and baths 
which surround it, were put into a state of restoration, as 
far as possible, by the British Government in connection 
with the visit of the Prince of Wales, later King Edward 
VII, in 1876, although semi-precious and imitation stones 
of glass were necessarily used to replace the original jewels. 

The Hall is ninety by sixty-seven feet, is wholly of white 
marble, once inlaid with jewels. Its ceiling, originally of 
solid silver, was taken away by the invading Jats, and is 
now replaced by gilded wood. 

The Royal Private Apartments had three sets of rooms 
and an octagon tower projecting over the river. In the 
central palace is a screen of marble, representing the heavens 
encircling the scales of Justice. Nearby are the Painted 
Palace, where the principal Sultana lived, and the Mumtaz 
Mahal, now used by the Delhi Museum of Archeology. 


396 INDIA 


The stream which flowed under the Hall of Private Audi- 
ence was carried across the court under a rounded arch 
through the Women’s Apartment. ‘The archway is hidden 
in part by a marble screen of trellis work decorated with 
gold. In the middle of the screen is a small aperture, where 
there were a silk curtain and, doubtless, peeping faces. 
‘These apartments are very choice, but are not so refined and 
artistic as are the women’s quarters in the Fort Palace at 
Agra. ‘The walls have bright mosaic frescoes and here, as 
at Agra, is a Jasmine Tower crowned by a dome, its win- 
dows latticed by marble tracery. “The Royal Bath near the 
Diwan-i-Khas consists of a low room with white marble 
floors and a dado handsomely decorated. A stream of water 
in a channel of alabaster originally ran around the queen’s 
bath. 

The Pearl Mosque (Moti Masjid) is a small, dignified 
three-domed structure, constructed of white and grey marble 
with two aisles, three arches and walls decorated with low 
reliefs. 


THE JAMT MoOSsSGGs 


The Jami Masjid is a noble structure, the largest Mosque 
in India, built on a huge platform of red sandstone with 
broad and impressive flights of stairs on three sides. It is 
effectively graded in colour from a deep red where it leaves 
the ground to a pure white at the top. It, however, lacks 
the churchly impression or atmosphere which pervades the 
Pearl Mosque at Agra. 

It has two well-proportioned minarets, 130 feet high 
which are lower than the Mosque, which has a maximum 
height of 201 feet. “The main approach is by a principal 
Gateway that is second in stately effect only to the Gate 
of Victory at Fatehpur Sikri. The Mosque often has 
10,000 or more worshippers at a single time, and is also 
used for popular public meetings. It has a collection of 
richly ornamented copies of the Koran, and among its price- 


JAMI MOSQUE SOF 


less treasures is a reputed slipper of Mohammed and a red 
hair from his beard. 

The Main Gateway in the olden days was opened ex- 
clusively for the Mogul Emperor, and now it is reserved 
for the Viceroy of India and the local Administration Head, 
but visitors may use the smaller side entrance. Inside is a 
great quadrangle, 325 feet square, with the usual marble 
basin and fountain in the centre. Around three sides is an . 
open cloister fifteen feet wide with pillared arches. 

* * * * # % * 

The Mutiny. Evidences of the Sepoy Mutiny are 
shown by the guides from many points of view, including 
the Ridge, the Cashmere Gate, and other graphic memorials 
of the tragic story of English heroism. ‘The details of the 
siege can be better understood by the visitor when he is 
actually on the scene of action and can have all the incidents 
localised and visualised. 

The Bazaars. Delhi has some of the most skiilful 
artisans of India in the fashioning of jewellery, silver, and 
gold ornaments, brass work, embroideries, cashmere shawls, 
camel’s-hair materials, necklaces, girdles, head ornaments, 
etc. The so-called green jade, however, is almost sure to be 
bowenite, or chloro-melanite. It is well to warn purchasers 
that many of the pearls and other jewels have flaws which 
are apt to be detected only by the initiated. 

Hotels. ‘The principal hotels are the Maidens, the Cecil 
and the Woodlands. 

Churches. Besides a Roman Catholic Church, there are 
two Anglican Churches, the St. James’ and St. Stephen’s. 

Missions. The important religious activities are the 
English Church Cambridge Mission and a Baptist Zenana 
work and general mission. 


OLD DELHI 


Old Delhi is interesting, not only for the historian and 
antiquarian, but also for the tourist. The remains of the 


398 INDIA 


earlier Delhi may be seen going southward from the present 
capital for a dozen miles or more. 

Among the lesser antiquities are the Column of Asoka, 
dating from 240 B.c., which is inscribed with Buddhist pre- 
cepts, denouncing the taking of life; the ruined fort at 
Firozabad ; the remains of the Mosque at Indrapat, together 
with the Tower, on whose steps Emperor Humayun (whose 
imposing domed tomb seems to have suggested the archi- 
tecture of the Taj Mahal) fell to his death while surveying 
the stars; the tomb of Mirza Jahangir, the son of Akbar, 
which is an artistic study in white; and the marble sar- 
cophagus of Akbar’s brother, under the marble canopied 
pavilion with its sixty-four delicately shaped and carved 
pillars. 

The object of supreme interest is the Kutab Minar, the 
great slender ornamented tower, which is one of the seven 
architectural wonders of India, often called the most perfect 
tower in the world. It consists of three stories of fluted red 
sandstone, each with its balcony and bands of inscriptions, 
together with honey-combed decorations, surmounted by two 
stories faced chiefly with white marble. It has stood over 
a thousand years, yielding to neither earthquake nor siege. 
It can be seen to best advantage from the roof of the ad- 
jacent Mosque. 

This pillar was erected as a Tower of Victory by Kutab- 
ud-Din, the Pathan ruler, who in early life was a slave. 
Two centuries later, Ala-ud-Din projected a tower which 
was to have been five hundred feet high, twice that of the 
Kutab, and more profusely decorated, but this was abandoned 
in its early building stage. 

The Mosque consists of some ruined arches and a hun- 
dred carved columns, being a part of the remains of the 
earlier Jain and Buddhist temples, which had been despoiled 
by the Pathans. In its court is a wrought iron pillar cele- 
brated for its size and beauty, with a Sanskrit inscription 
which dates back to the first century. The tradition is that 
those who put their backs against this column and touch 


ATP AGR 399 


their hands on the opposite side are assured of good luck. 
The tomb of Altamsh, one of the most highly decorated 
mausoleums in India, indicates the extent of ornamentation 
which the entire building originally had. 


JAIPUR 


The temptation to outline the attractions of cities like 
Lahore, Peshawar, Amritsar, Simla, Alwar, Gwalior, and 
other fascinating places of lesser degree in northwest India, 
must be resisted in view of the fact that this volume is 
intended chiefly for Cruise travellers. A brief sketch, how- 
ever, may be made of Jaipur, which can be reached by a 
narrow gauge railroad either from Agra or Delhi. 

Jaipur is 149 miles from Agra and has a population 
(1921) of 121,196. According to Kipling it is “a pink city 
set on the border of a blue lake,—a city to see and puzzle 
over.” ‘The prevailing colours of its buildings are sky blue, 
pink and white, and there are many shades of blended colours, 
so that seeing Jaipur is a unique experience even in India. 
An early ruler, Jey Singh, who built the city, laid out streets 
sixty yards wide and straight as an arrow, and surrounded 
the city with a wall having seven gates. Its architecture, 
broadly speaking, is Hindu,—the many-arched type which is 
characteristically Indian. ‘The Maharaja of Jaipur governs 
an area of 15,600 square miles containing 3,000,000 people, 
and has an annual revenue of $7,200,000. 

Jaipur is a busy commercial city. The making of many 
kinds of jewellery, especially the cutting and setting of gar- 
nets, and the block printing by hand of colours on cloths 
and muslins in striking oriental patterns, are characteristic 
industries. “The best enamel and brass work is also done 
here. 

This rose-red city ‘“‘half as old as time” is glorified in Sir 
Edwin Arnold’s “Light of Asia,’ but his chronology is 
wrong, as the city is quite modern,—less than two hundred 
years old. It has two long thoroughfares crossing at right 
angles at the walls of the palace. Everything runs to colours 


400 INDIA 


in Jaipur (which is not intimating that the colours run) ,— 
houses, decorations, bazaars and even the garments of the 
people. 

The skirts of the women are brilliantly hued and flare- 
fashioned. Bracelets often weighing in the aggregate eight 
or ten pounds extend from the wrist to the elbow, and the 
ankles are similarly adorned. Heavy rings are pendant from 
the nose and ears, like the popular “rings on her fingers, 
and bells on her toes, elephants to ride upon everywhere 
she goes,” as is generally apt to be the case throughout India. 
Every Jaipur woman carries her wealth on her person. ‘The 
variegated garments of the people and their brilliantly gay 
turbans and shawls make a street pageant of spectacular 
effect. 

From the four corners at the palace wall one sees a 
kaleidoscopic effect of elephant and camel trains making a 
startling contrast with the modern conveyances of automobile 
and bicycle. Rikishas and carriages go by in a strange 
medley of confusion, and innumerable pigeons gather around 
the monumented fountain. 

The Maharaja’s Palace occupies about one-seventh of 
the centre of the city’s area, and is a rather stately structure 
set in attractive pleasure grounds and gardens. “The Chandra 
Mahal, which is at the centre of the Palace, is a striking 
structure of seven stories. “The Hall of Private Audience has 
some interest, as have the modern buildings (used by the 
Maharaja and his zenana), rather garishly furnished and 
gay with painted ceilings, candelabra and gilt mirrors. 

The Palace of the Winds, called by Sir Edwin Arnold, 
“a vision of daring and dainty loveliness,” has its entire front 
painted pink, making quite a spectacular impression. 

A Temple of the Sun and a so-called “Gate of Rubies” 
are among the sightseeing attractions. 

The Public Garden outside the city wall occupies thirty- 
six acres and is one of the finest in India. In the centre is 
Albert Hall, which is a superb modern building, housing a 
Museum, which suggests an Oriental South Kensington 


SIGHTSEEING 401 


Museum, as it has a fine collection of specimens of the art 
and industries of India, together with metal work and carv- 
ings. “There are 15,000 or more objects of art covering a 
wide field,—brass work, stone carvings, enamels, pottery ;— 
the native work making an interesting comparison with other 
lands, by placing reproductions of Persian and Russian side 
by side with that of the Jaipur school of art. The main 
object of the Museum is to show the craftsman of Jaipur 
the best that his predecessors and foreign artists have done. 

The Cenotaphs of the Maharajas are also outside the 
walls and are placed in a fine garden in which many grey- 
headed apes sport about among the trees. One of these ceno- 
taphs is built of white marble, and its carved pillars and 
platform are profusely decorated with scenes from Hindu 
mythology. 

The two principal Hotels are the Kaiser-i-Hind and the 
New. 


AMBER 


Amber, six or seven miles from Jaipur, reachable by a 
ticcaghari, or by an elephant, is a city so marred by war and 
neglect that nothing is left but the dead memorials of its 
palaces and temples and forts. Everywhere chattering apes 
(considered sacred) contest the right of way. A thousand 
years ago it was regarded as an impregnable fortress, now 
it is a “city that will never wake.” 

The battlements on the mountain-side are staircased with 
terraces, ornamented with elaborate grill work and artistic 
stone railings. In the palace are some rooms still beautiful, 
suggesting the interiors of the palaces at Agra and Delhi. 
Adjacent is a Public Audience Hall which has remarkably 
fine decorations, as well as a little temple, a gem of marble 
tracery and inlay, dedicated to Kali, the goddess who must 
always be appeased with blood. 

‘Thousands of men must have toiled at the walls encir- 
cling the city, its temples, its fort and the canals that once 


402 INDIA 


lifted water to the palace; but its present desolation is beyond 
that of the desert or the sea. 


BOMBAY 


The Island of Bombay is one of a group of twelve. It is 
eleven and a half miles long, from four to six miles wide, 
and has an area of 22.48 square miles. “The docks are located 
on the west side of the harbour. The name “Bombay” is 
probably from the Portuguese “‘Bom Bahia,” or “good bay,” 
although it might possibly be derived from the local name 
of a Hindu goddess. 

In 1626 the Portuguese settlement in Bombay was cap- 
tured by a combined British and Dutch force, and in 1661 
Bombay was ceded to England, not on the basis of conquest, 
but as a part of the marriage settlement of Catherine of 
Portugal, when she married Charles II of England. At the 
time it was taken over by the East India Company there 
were only 10,000 inhabitants, but immediately thereafter, 
because of the racial and religious immunity promised, Jews, 
Armenians, Arabs, Jains, and especially the Parsees, flocked 
into the city, which by 1720 had grown to have 50,000 
inhabitants and was enclosed by a wall. 

Some remarkable developments have been effected in Bom- 
bay in the reclamation of land, a square mile and a half 
having been added, and this is still being increased. ‘This 
progress is also marked in the construction of docks, in view 
of Bombay’s being the Western Gateway of India; in the 
growth of cotton mills, there being now 83 with 180,000 
employés; and in the construction of very fine buildings and 
the growth of great philanthropies. The Corporation, or 
local Government of Bombay, consists of seventy-two mem- 
bers and the municipal income is about 140,000,000 rupees. 

Bombay has important commercial advantages, as it is the 
natural terminus of India to vessels coming from the Suez 
Canal. It is one of the world’s largest cotton centres, New 
Orleans alone excepted. It has also a natural port and 





BOMBAY 403 


harbour, making it particularly accessible to ocean vessels, 
which is not the case, for instance, in other great commer- 
cial centres in India like Calcutta and Madras. It has been 
well fortified on its sea-ward side with batteries on the vari- 
ous islands, and with three powerful forts on the mainland. 

Bombay was called the “Queen City of India” by Kipling, 
and it has a greater number of imposing buildings than have 
several English cities of practically the same size. In the 
natural beauty of its surroundings, it is surpassed in the 
Far East only by Hong-Kong. 


THE PARSEES 


The Parsees are the most important single factor in Bom- 
bay, if British political and commercial leadership be ex- 
cepted. The Parsee presents a strange mingling of a rigid 
adherence to ancient custom and religion, united with the 
most modern and progressive business efficiency and method. 
Although there are only fifty thousand Parsees among the 
_million inhabitants of Bombay, they dominate the commer- 
cial life of Bombay as even the British do not, and the city 
is punctuated with hospitals, asylums, educational institu- 
tions, drinking fountains, parks and statues, which are the 
expressions of Parsee benefactions. “They have sumptuous 
homes and luxurious clubs, and they are largely the directors 
of the banks and commercial houses. Some of the really 
great fortunes of Bombay are in their hands. ‘They amassed 
great wealth from the high prices of cotton during the Amer- 
ican Civil War. 

Originally they were Persians and disciples of Zoroaster, 
who were driven out of Persia by the Mohammedan con- 
querors twelve centuries ago. “The Parsees were despised as 
an inferior people and for hundreds of years they were kept 
in the humble slavish places of toil, but when the British 
came and all restrictions were removed, they rapidly ad- 
vanced themselves until today they are the leading bankers, 
merchants, manufacturers and professional men of Bombay. 


404 INDIA 


They are truthful, generous and industrious, and represent 
very high standards of morality and business ethics. “They 
have all these centuries been cultivating education, co-opera- 
tion, commercial methods and systematic charity, and because 
of their studied consideration of others they have made excel- 
lent neighbours and good citizens. “They are very fond of 
games and sports, and some famous cricket teams coming 
from England have suffered a Waterloo at the hands of a 
local Parsee Cricket Club. 

The ultra orthodox still wear a white girdle of three coils 
embodying the triple principles of good thoughts, good words, 
and good deeds. ‘The men sometimes wear a small round 
hat of grey felt, but more often the shiny tall black visorless 
cap, starred with yellow, having the shape of a cow’s hoof, 
which originally they were compelled to wear as a sign of 
subserviency, but now regard as a distinction. Otherwise 
they are largely garbed in European fashion. The women 
are fond of the delicately shaded silk garments and em- 
broidered mantillas, and adhere to their characteristic Parsee 
costume more closely than do the men. The Parsee woman, 
draping her sari gracefully around her, makes a comely fig- 
ure, the costume being as distinctive as that of the Maltese 
woman with her faldette. She can always be distinguished 
from Hindu women, not only because of her evident superior 
culture, but also because the Hindu woman has one or several 
rings in her left nostril as the distinctive symbol of her mar- 
riage, and wears a gaily coloured ftchulis, or short jacket, 
covering her bust but leaving the middle of her waist and her 
arms bare. 

The Parsees, as a class, are highly educated and accom- 
plished, speak English fluently,—usually without accent, and 
are the conspicuous and uplifting Indian element in Bombay. 
Some of the humbler Parsees may be found working cn 
trams, railroads and similar lines of employment, but there 
is little poverty among them and ample relief is given, when 
needed, by the Parsees themselves. 

The syllables “jee” and ‘“‘bhoy” are often found in their 


THE PARSEES 405 


names. ‘The greatest hospital, for instance, is the benefac- 
tion of Mr. Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy. ‘The Jeejeebhoy family 
is regarded as of sufficient importance to have a British 
baronetcy bestowed upon it, and there are other Parsee fami- 
lies who have had baronetcies and knighthood bestowed upon 
them. ‘They naturally are all very strong supporters of 
English rule. 

At a Parsee wedding the women wear gold broidered 
saris and are bejewelled with the wealth of India. Parsee 
men come in their white ceremonial garments with their 
weird black hats. The wedding ceremony is very elaborate, 
interspersed with much symbolism, and at the close the happy 
couple are showered with rice and flowers. ‘The bride, after 
receiving the gifts of the groom, is sprinkled with rosewater 
and made fragrant with attar of roses. An elaborate vege- 
tarian menu of Europeanised dishes is attractively served 
upon palm leaves in lieu of plates, dispensing with knives 
and forks. 

They have impressive services at the death-bed and at the 
time of burial. One of the old superstitions, however, among 
the least intelligent Parsees, is a belief that if a dog is 
brought and placed so that he can look upon the face of the 
deceased, it will drive away any evil spirit. 

The Parsees brought with them from Persia the religion 
of Zoroaster who, a thousand years before Christ, had enun- 
ciated the doctrine of one God manifesting himself in earth, 
water and fire. “They were really the early Pantheists. 
While they stress the sun as their chief symbol of worship 
and have not permitted the sacred fire which they brought 
with them from Persia to be extinguished, they deny that 
they actually are worshippers of fire, and assert that the 
sacred flame in their temples is merely a symbol. ‘This is 
evidently true, as other religions, including that of the an- 
cient Jews, have had lighted candlesticks and altar fires 
burning in their temples, which were not allowed to be 
extinguished. Fire represents to the Parsees the effulgence 
and glory of the Deity, and this is their thought when they 


406 INDIA 


prostrate themselves before the setting sun in prayerful 
adoration. 


MALABAR HILL 


Malabar Hill is one hundred and eighty feet high. The 
drive from Malabar Point along the sea by Breach Kandy 
is exceptionally pleasurable. Here are the residences of 
British aristocrats and Parsee millionaires, set in lovely 
gardens. About the middle of the Hill are the Hanging 
Gardens, giving alluring views of the Back Bay, the harbour 
and the islands and mountains beyond. Here also are the 
charming grounds of the Ladies’ Gymkhana. At the south- 
east foot of the hill is a Parsee Almshouse for both sexes. 


THE TOWERS, OF SIUENCSE 


On the highest point of Malabar Hill are located the 
famous ‘Towers of Silence, the outer serrated wall, surround- 
ing the grounds, being fringed with rows of expectant buz- 
zards, on the watch for the next Parsee funeral procession. 

The Parsee method of disposing of the corpses of their 
dead seems naturally rather repulsive to the Occidental mind, 
but, next to cremation, it certainly furnishes the best sani- 
tary safeguards. To the criticism, made in connection with 
the usage of letting loathsome vultures tear the flesh from 
the bones of the exposed dead bodies, the Parsee replies that 
it is even more repulsive to him to think of worms con- 
suming the buried body in the churchyard. 

These round white towers built of stone and cement are 
five in number, the largest encircling 276 feet, 25 feet high 
and costing $250,000, and they occupy the very summit of 
the aristocratic Malabar Hill, with its superb panoramic view 
of Bombay and the Arabian sea. There is no architectural 
effect sought. There are low round turrets on the walls, 
the whole being of grey stone. The only opening in the wall 
is a small iron door, reached by a short flight of steps. 


TOWERS OF SILENCE 407 


On the occasion of a funeral, the casket containing the 
body is carried on the shoulders of four stout bearers. Imme- 
diately following them are two bearded men who form a 
separate class, regarded as unclean because they touch dead 
bodies. “These are the only people who are permitted to 
enter the Tower itself. They receive the corpse from the 
bearers and carry it within the Tower, where it is placed on 
one of three circles, the outer being for men, the middle one 
for women, and the innermost for children. “The body, in 
every case, is placed on an iron grating and the shroud is 
removed, leaving the corpse bare. When the vultures, who 
are waiting upon the outer walls, hear the clang of the 
closing iron doors, they swoop down in fierce competition, 
and in less than half an hour only the absolutely naked 
skeleton is left. It is said that these birds can discern a 
funeral procession at a distance, and that they then give the 
signal among themselves to gather for their ghoulish feast. 

The “Carriers of the Dead” after depositing the body, go 
to the purifying place where they wash themselves and change 
their garments, leaving the clothes they have been wearing 
to be washed in a special tower built for that purpose. 

Meantime the mourners in white have followed the pro- 
cession, two by two, in each case holding a handkerchief 
between them as an evidence of their grief. When the body 
disappears within the gates, these mourners for a moment 
take their position under one of the stately palms in medi- 
tation and prayer, and then enter into the adjoining Place 
of Worship wherein the sacred fire is constantly burning. 
Here the last sacred offices for the dead are performed by 
the Parsee priest. “This House of Prayer is in a beautiful 
garden, in which, as the Parsees say, even the cypresses point 
toward heaven. It has an inspiring view over the harbour 
and the distant mountainous islands. 

Three days after the body has been put into the Tower, 
the relatives assemble at the Fire Temple. The son or near- 
est relative kneels before the Priest and pledges fidelity to the 
memory and dying wishes of the deceased. At this time, 


408 INDIA 


also, gifts to charity are made by the heirs. On the anni- 
versary of the death, flowers are planted by the family in 
an iron frame in memory of the deceased, and prayers are 
then offered. 

The skeletons remain exposed in the Tower for a little 
time to be thoroughly seasoned, and the bearded men, to 
whom reference has been made, remove the bones with tongs 
and drop them into a deep well five feet in diameter in the 
middle of the Tower, where gradually they turn to dust. 
‘The dust from deposited bones accumulated so slowly that 
it rose only five feet in forty years. ‘The most modern sani- 
tary devices are employed to do away with anything that 
suggests corruption. In the central well, where all bones 
are deposited, there are four drains to carry off the water 
of rain and the dust of the decaying bones, and all these 
drains are thoroughly cleansed by passing through charcoal 
and sandstone filters, before reaching a series of subterranean 
wells having sand foundations. 

Certainly from a sanitary point of view, this disposition 
of the dead is preferable to that of the Hindu burning ghats, 
where the body is not always consumed and where the un- 
burned portions are thrown into the river. We know that 
there is a philosophy underlying the ceremonial symbolism 
of this repellent system,—the triumph of Universal purity, 
physical and moral, over the filth of physical and moral evil. 

The Towers of Silence as a whole are sacred to Sraosha, 
the guardian angel of the dead. ‘They cover a large area 
containing eight thousand square yards. ‘Three of the five 
towers are reserved for the general Parsee public, the fourth 
for suicides and criminals, and the fifth, which is the oldest 
of all, having been erected in 1672 by Modi Hizi Wachha, 
is used only by his descendants. But in the well below, all 
classes of the Parsees of Bombay mingle as common dust. 

This method of disposing of the bodies of the dead goes 
back three thousand years. The teaching of Zoroaster is 
that in death the rich and poor must meet, and this has been 
literally interpreted. 


PARSEE TEMPLE 409 


There are altogether fifty-three Parsee temples in India. 
Inside the shrine, or holy place in the temple, no one but a 
priest enters. A marble pedestal in the middle supports a 
silver brazier containing the fire, which has never through 
the centuries been extinguished, and which is the only light 
permitted. It is constantly fed with small pieces of sandal- 
wood giving out an incense, which pervades the entire temple. 
Here also are the bells, which are rung at stated Parsee 
periods. Weapons are available, to be used by the priest in 
the hypothetical case of any intruder desiring to desecrate or 
quench the flame. 

‘There is always an attendant near the fire temple, who 
shows a model of the interior of the Towers, and who ex- 
plains the ceremonial in a very thorough and intelligent way. 
Arrangements for tourist parties to visit the Towers are 
made by the Cruise management, but those who are not with 
tourist parties can get tickets of admission, for which no 
charge is made, from the Parsee secretary at 209 Hornby 
Row. ‘The Towers are open from 7:30 to 9 A. M. and from 
2:30 to 5 P.M. Smoking and the use of cameras inside the 
grounds are not permitted. 


THE SIGHTS OF BOMBAY 


The Rajabai Tower, connected with the University Li- 
brary, is 260 feet high and was built in 1880 and presented 
to the city by Mr. Rajabai. It is the first landmark visible 
to ships entering the harbour. 

The Victoria Terminus of the Great Indian Peninsula 
Railway, known colloquially as the G. I. P., was opened 
in 1887 and cost $1,500,000. It is an imposing building in 
the Italian-Gothic style and is perhaps the finest as well as 
the most artistic railway station in Asia. The great dome 
is crowned by a figure of Progress. In the niche under the 
clock is a statue of Queen Victoria, said to be the best 
marble statue of the Queen in existence. 


The ‘‘Welcome Arch”’ near the Taj Mahal Hotel and 


410 INDIA 


the Bunder Dock, is a mammoth structure built in honour 
of the Prince of Wales’ visit in 1921, and is said to have 
been paid for by the voluntary contributions of the citizens 
of Bombay. It can be seen for many miles and is a majestic 
“Gateway of Western India.” 

The Victoria and Albert Museum was established in 
1858 to celebrate Queen Victoria’s receiving the title of 
Empress of India. It has a fairly valuable collection, repre- 
senting the economic and industrial products of Western 
India, and illustrates its natural history. It has also a valu- 
able reference library. ‘The colossal stone elephant, orig- 
inally found at Elephanta Island, is placed outside the 
Museum. The Museum is open from 7:30 to 10:30 A.M. 
and 1:30 to 5 P.M., but is closed on Wednesdays. 

The Victoria Gardens occupy forty-eight acres and are 
entered by a gateway facing Parel Road. Here may be seen 
the David Sassoon clock tower and fountain, and the Lady 
Frere pavilion. ‘The Park, artistically laid out with rare 
plants and trees, has some small artificial lakes and a zoologi- 
cal collection. 


PUBLIC BUILDINGS 


Among the important public buildings are the following: 

The Presidential Secretariat is an imposing structure 
and is used by the Governor and his Council, and by the 
Revenue department. 

The Courts of Justice is a mammoth building 562 feet 
long and has a Tower 175 feet high. 

The Statue of Queen Victoria is north of the Tele- 
graph Office. It was presented by the native ruler of Barado 
and cost 165,000 rupees. Her Majesty is seated under a 
canopy and in its centre is the Star of India, and above this 
the Rose of England and the Lotus of India, together with 
the mottoes, ‘“God and my right,” and “Heaven’s Light our 
Guide,” inscribed in four languages. 

The Town Hall is a large colonnaded building contain- 


SIGHTSEEING 411 


ing the Grand Assembly Room, the quarters of the Bombay 
Asiatic Society with its Library of 100,000 volumes, and the 
Council Room with paintings of historical English and In- 
dian personages. 

The Prince of Wales Museum is at the southern end 
of Esplanade Road and includes an Art and Archeological 
department, a Natural History department, and a section 
containing specimens of Indian industries. Nearby is the 
Royal Institute of Science which houses a College of Sci- 
ence, a Science Library, a Public Hall, and some Exami- 
nation Schools. 

The Elphinstone College cost 750,000 rupees and con- 
sists of a High School and a College for natives. 

The Municipal Buildings, a mixture of Gothic and 
Oriental architecture, have a tower 255 feet high. 

The Crawford Market, costing 1,100,000 rupees, is 
crowned with a clock tower 128 feet high. Sir Edwin 
Arnold says of it, “Here fish, flesh, vegetables, flowers, fruit 
and general commodities are vended in separate buildings, 
all kept in admirable order and cleanliness and all opening 
on green and shady gardens.” 

Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy Hospital has room for 500 pa- 
tients, and connected with it are a Hospital for Incurables, 
an Obstetric Hospital and a Special Hospital for women and 
children. 

The Wilson College is one of the largest colleges for 
natives in Western India. 

The Walkeshwar Temple, which is sacred to the sand 
god, and the Banganga Pool, the Sunken Well, together with 
the miniature towers, are on Malabar Hill near the Towers 
of Silence. At the Walkeshwar Tank near the Shirgundi 
(the sacred cleft in the seashore at Malabar Point), one sees 
a place of pilgrimage with a cluster of temples, shrines and 
holy wells suggesting Benares. 

A Favourite Drive is along the Queens Road at the 
Oral and Cooperage, following the seashore and passing the 
polo, cricket and football fields. 


412 INDIA 


The Apollo Bunder has been the landing pier since 1819, 
and tenders used by ships at anchor, disembark their pas- 
sengers at Ballard Pier nearby. The ships that come directly 
to the pier now land at the Alexandra docks. 

The American Consulate is at Roosevelt House, nearly 
opposite the I’aj Mahal Hotel. 

The Taj Mahal and the Hotel Majestic are the two 
principal hotels and are handsome buildings, and fairly com- 
fortable. It is safer not to drink the water which is served. 

Shopping. In the Native City a motley Asiatic popu- 
lation ebbs and flows, all in characteristic costumes and be- 
wildering variety of colours. Fine native Bazaars may here 
be found, especially in brass and copper utensils, pottery of 
every description, blackwood, teakwood, sandalwood and 
tortoise-shell carvings, lace manufactured from gold and sil- 
ver thread and Bombay embroidery. 

Abdul Rahman Street has a large number of shops owned 
by Indian merchants, displaying embroideries, rugs, jewelled 
slippers, silver clutch work, ivories, brasses, jewellery, soft 
India silks, cotton printed goods and black wood carvings. 

Churches, “The Roman Catholics have eleven churches, 
a college for boys, and several convent schools for girls. The 
American Presbyterians and the United Free Church are 
doing a successful Mission work. 

The Y. M. C. A. has a number of branches, and is car- 
ried on both for foreigners and for natives in a helpful and 
enterprising way. “The Main Building is quite near the 
Hotels and visitors will receive a cordial welcome. ‘The 
Y. W. C. A, is doing a similar work among women. 


ELEPHANTA ISLAND 


Motor launches leave the Apollo Bunder pier near the 
new Welcome Arch at 8:30 A. M. and 2:30 P. M., or if pre- 
ferred independent motor boats can be hired. This Island is 
six miles from Bombay, is less than five miles in circum- 
ference, and its highest point is 568 feet. “The name was 





VULTURES AT THE TOWERS OF SILENCE 
AUTHENTIC BIRTHPLACE OF MR. KIPLING 





ELEPHANTA ISLAND 413 


given by the Portuguese in the sixteenth century because of 
the fact that a huge monolith stone elephant, seven feet, four 
inches high, and thirteen feet, two inches long, was found 
in front of the temple. 

After arriving at the Elephanta Pier a stone stairway of 
three hundred steps and a path a quarter of a mile long leads 
to the cave temple. If preferred, one can be carried up by 
coolies in a sedan chair. 

A city with splendid palaces and shrines flourished here 
for a thousand years, beginning several centuries before 
Christ, but in the thirteenth century A.D. it was destroyed, 
and almost nothing remains. 

The Cave Temples of Siva are three in number and the 
fourth is being excavated. ‘They date back almost to the 
Christian era, and are rich in fine rock sculptured details, 
some of which are preserved in a Museum established at 
Elephanta, which contains excavated art treasures. 

The largest structure erected in the interior is 133 by 130 
feet and is twenty feet high. ‘The entrance is in the face 
of the cliff and is marked by heavy columns; here stood at 
one time the large stone elephant now in the Bombay 
Museum. As one enters the dim interior, a shadowy row 
of twenty-six pillars are visible, seventeen feet high, of which 
eight have fallen. ‘The sides of the cave corridor show an 
array of Hindu deities. 

‘The main entrance is one hundred and thirty feet in length 
and the Sanctuary within is ninety-one feet square and has 
six rows of pillars. A triple bust of heroic proportions called 
the Trimurti, representing Brahma, the creator, Vishnu, the 
preserver, and Siva, the destroyer, is eighteen feet high. 

Brahma, although regarded as the chief god of this trium- 
virate, is now rarely recognised in Hindu worship, Siva and 
Vishnu sharing the honours. On the southern wall is a 
figure of Siva, sixteen feet high, which is half a man and half 
a woman to signify that Siva united both sexes in his one 
person. ‘Iwo of his numerous hands rest on a bull who is 
his constant “‘vehicle’’ or attendant. 


414 TNDIA 


In the room, west of that in which the Trimurti is found, 
are the figures of Siva, sixteen feet high, and of his wife, 
Parvati, twelve feet high. The large cave opposite contains 
a carving, representing the offering of a human sacrifice. 
Brahma with four faces seated on his lotus throne, which 
is supported by five swans, can be seen to the right. Other 
shrines and chapels with carvings or images adjoin the main 
temple. 

There is a statue evidently representing the marriage of 
Siva and Parvati, the position of the latter showing she is 
his bride, as the privilege of standing on the right of her 
husband or eating with him is only vouchsafed to a woman 
on her wedding day. To the right of Parvati is Brahma 
officiating as Priest and at Siva’s left is Vishnu, presumably 
as witness, 


SOUTHERN UX 
MADRAS 


Madras is a bustling city, the third commercial port of 
India, but of minor interest to tourists. ‘The centre of the 
city is Mountain Road on which hotels, shops and principal 
buildings are located. 

The Harbour of Madras is quite small, being about 200 
acres in size, artificially dug, and is protected by two large 
breakwaters. 

The Government House, open to visitors when the 
Governor is not in residence, has a very spacious and hand- 
some Banqueting Hall. 

The Island is between the Government House and the 
Fort, and contains a large recreation and parade ground and 
the Gymkhana Club. 

The Chepauk Park and buildings are on the sea front. 
The Palace here is in Moorish style and is now occupied by 
the offices of the Board of Revenue. 

The Marina is the fashionable promenade and drive, and 


MADRAS 415 


extends from Napier Bridge about two miles, where it enters 
the European suburb known as “the Adyar.” 

St. Mary’s Church was the first English Church in 
India, dating from 1680, and is rich in historical association. 

The High Court Buildings cover about a hundred 
thousand square feet and form a very impressive group. 

The Museum is one of the great group of buildings 
which includes the Victoria Technical Institute, the Cone- 
mara Library, and especially the Victoria Memorial Hall. 
It contains a superb display of old armour, weapons and 
metal work trophies, together with bas-reliefs and images. 
There are also many specimens of natural history, botany, 
geology and archeology. One bit of bone displayed in a 
cylinder is undoubtedly (!) a part of Buddha’s body. 

The Horticultural Gardens occupy twenty-two acres 
and contain rare trees, and an ornamental setting of shrubs 
and flowers. 

The St. Thomas Mount is a military depot and canton- 
ment which has the finest military buildings in India. The 
honours as to whether St. ‘Thomas was martyred here, or 
at the Little Mount and Church near by, are divided. ‘Tra- 
dition has it that a Brahmin priest pierced him with a lance 
in 68 A.D. 

The Madras Christian College, the buildings of which 
cost $250,000, is regarded as one of the most successful 
colleges in India. 

Missions. ‘The Society for Propagating the Gospel has 
a series of Churches and Schools, and there are Missions by 
the Baptist, Lutheran, Wesleyan and Church of Scotland 
bodies. ; 

The Principal Hotels are the D’Angelis and the Cone- 
mara. 


fewlCnWueN O POL?) 


Trichinopoli is in the centre of the Indian tobacco country 
and is famous for its Temple of Vishnu. ‘To get a com- 


416 INDIA 


manding view of the city one must climb 290 steps of a tun- 
nelled staircase (painted with the perpendicular red and 
white stripes of Siva), punctuated with several landings, on 
one of which is the black image of Ganesha, the elephant- 
headed god. On the open summit platform, 236 feet above 
the city, is a small temple dedicated to Ganesha. 

It is a three-mile drive to the celebrated temple of Vishnu, 
built on an Island in the Kaveri River. This is the largest 
temple in Southern India, and has fifteen gorpuras, or 
pyramidal structures. The temple area is entered by a gate- 
way forty-eight feet high, the top of which is supported by 
great monoliths, some of them having a height of forty feet. 

The Outer Court is 2,475 by 2,880 feet, enclosed by a 
large wall. Within the Court are the dwellings of the 
Brahmin priests who serve the Temple, together with a series 
of bazaars. “The buildings diminish in size as one approaches 
the innermost part, where the jewelled temple is located. 

The Hall of the Horse Columns is very remarkable, having 
monolith pillars of granite carved as delicately as though 
they were ivory, picturing the many incarnations of Vishnu. 

The Hall of a Thousand Pillars (really only goo in all) 
has whitewashed and rather shabby monolith columns eight- 
een feet high, with heavy carvings of war and hunting scenes. 

In the beautifully proportioned and artistic Inner ‘Temple, 
with its golden cupola covering the shrine containing the 
sacred image of Vishnu, is a treasure trove of jewels that 
gives one the impression that the wealth of India is gathered 
here,—emeralds, rubies, diamonds, sapphires and pearls in 
heaped-up confusion. Precious stones as large as marbles 
are embossed on gold helmets, crowns, necklaces, gauntlets, 
bowls, tridents, salvers, head ornaments, and figures of birds 
and idols. These are all taken out of their sealed chests and 
placed indiscriminately upon a filthy cotton table-cover for 
the visitor’s delectation. A special permit must be secured 
in order to see the jewels. “There are many keys and Brah- 
min keepers to safeguard them, but thefts are frequent, 
50,000 rupees’ worth having disappeared at one time. 


MADURA TEMPLE ‘417 


From the Rock of Trichinopoli, which is a wonderful 
viewpoint for all the surrounding region, one can see the 
lofty pagoda tower of Tanjore, thirty miles distant, 


MADURA 


In the land of the Madura Presidency are found the 
Tamils, with very black skins, but with many excellent 
traits of character. “These are also to be found in other 
parts of India, and especially in Ceylon, where they largely 
form the thrifty and reliable tea plantation workers. ‘The 
missionaries have done such effective work among them in 
Madura that one-fifth of the people are Christians. 

The Madura Temple is a very striking structure, deco- 
rated with a thousand intricate sculptural variations, a tem- 
ple that is larger than the Louvre. It was built in honour 
of Siva, the god of death, and his wife, Minakshi. Every 
May these idols are paraded in state in a procession of gold 
and silver chariots and palanquins, together with elephants 
in their jewelled trappings. 

The temple jewels compare very favourably with those 
spoken of in connection with the Temple at Trichinopoli, 
being perhaps the finest and most elaborate in Southern 
India. 

The Temple has also a Hall of a Thousand Columns, 
with literally acres of elaborate stone carvings covering the 
entire surface of walls and pillars. A very large water basin 
is in the centre of the temple court. 


SUPPLEMENTARY FACTS AND 
FIGURES ABOUT INDIA 


India is a part of the British Empire, and is governed 
through a Viceroy, or Governor General, the present one 
being the Earl of Reading, who was appointed April, 1921, 
for a term of five years. The first Governor General, War. 
ren Hastings, was appointed in 1774. The Viceroy, co: 


418 INDIA 


operating with the Secretary of State, an Executive Council, 
and a Council of from eight to twelve Englishmen residing 
in England, has supreme executive authority. 

There is now an Indian Legislature or Parliament having 
two Chambers, the Council of State with sixty members, 
and the Legislative Assembly with one hundred and forty- 
four members, of whom twenty-six are officially appointed 
and one hundred and three are elected. The President who 
presides is appointed by the Governor General. ‘The Legis- 
lature now has power to make laws for all persons within 
British India, including Englishmen, subject to the approval 
of the Viceroy and Council. 

There is also a Governor General’s Executive Council of 
four persons who have oversight of eleven Departments, 
with a Secretary at the head of each Department. ‘There 
are fifteen administrations or presidencies, Madras, Bombay, 
Bengal, Agra and Oudh, the Punjab and Burma being the 
most prominent. Each of these fifteen provinces has a Goy- 
ernor with a Legislative Council, largely elected by the peo- 
ple, varying from fifty-three to one hundred and eighteen 
members each. “This was one of the great Constitutional 
changes under the Government of India Act in 1919. 

In addition there are 675 Native Indian States, the largest 
being Hyderabad, as large as Italy, with 82,000 square miles 
and thirteen million inhabitants. Others are of lesser size, 
the smallest having nineteen square miles. “These Indian 
States are governed by Indian princes, ministers or councils, 
each with a limited military force. 

In 1920 there were 739 municipalities, controlled by 
municipal bodies elected by the people. They manage roads, 
water supply, sanitation, education, taxes, etc. “The members 
of these municipal bodies are nearly all Indians and are 
elected by the taxpayers. In some communities women are 
allowed to vote, and in a very few are eligible for election. 


MACTS AND FIGURES 419 


In addition to the 709,515 square miles under the control 
of native Princes, Great Britain is absolute dictator over 
1,093,074 square miles. ‘The entire population (1921) is 
318,942,480. Of these 217,586,892 (or about 69.4%) are 
Hindus, 66,647,299 are Mohammedans, 10,721,453 are 
Buddhists, 10,295,168 are Animists, 3,876,203 are Chris- 
tians, 3,014,466 are Sikhs, 1,248,182 are Jains, 100,096 are 
Parsees, and 20,980 are Jews. 

Of the Christians, 1,490,863 are Roman Catholics, 492,- 
752 are Anglicans, 337,226 are Baptists, 218,500 are Luth- 
erans, 181,130 are Presbyterians, 171,844 are Methodists, 
135,205 are Congregationalists, 52,407 belong to the Sal- 
vation Army, and 45,894 are members of other Protestant 
bodies. ‘The Syrian Christians number 728,000. 

The number of literate males is 16,938,668, or five per 
cent. of the population, and there are 1,600,763 literate 
females, or one-half of one per cent. 

There are six government universities: Calcutta, Madras, 
Bombay, the Punjab, Allahabad and Patna. ‘There is also 
a Hindu University at Benares and a Moslem University 
at Aligarh, as well as a University in the Indian States at 
Mysori and Hyderabad. The University of Calcutta, 
founded 1857, has 17,409 students and that of Bombay has 
4,152 students. All colleges together have 64,667 male and 
1,249 female students. 

There are altogether 168,358 public schools, with 7,612,- 
839 scholars, and in addition there are 34,623 private schools 
(mostly missionary) with 593,386 scholars. ‘The total 
amount spent on education (1920) was £14,889,696, while 
in 1914 it was but £6,696,585. In the Madras Province 
alone 254 periodicals are published, and 140 in the Bombay 
Province. 

There are altogether 11,418 courts, mostly presided over 
by native judges. 


420 INDIA 


The revenues (1922) were £122,591,081, and the ex- 
penditures £127,078,153. India yielded (1924) 28,298,000 
tons of rice, 16,709,000 tons of wheat, 5,075,000 bales of 
cotton, 6,996,000 bales of jute, and 310,599,000 pounds of 
tea. Of a total of 625,149,442 acres, 222,825,487 are culti- 
vated (of which 48,963,033 are irrigated) and 88,323,320 
are forest lands. There are altogether 4,827 mills and fac- 
tories employing 1,238,410 hands. 

In 1921, 7,706 steamships entered India ports. ‘There 
were 37,265 miles of railways, of which 7,552 are operated 
by the State. “They represent a capital expenditure of £380,- 
000,000, which is regarded as well invested. 

The imports (1922) were 2,974,960,358 rupees, and ex- 
ports, 2,644,367,028 rupees. 

The Army consists of the British Regular Army, the 
Native Army, the Auxiliary Force, and the Imperial Service 
Troops. No figures are available for political reasons. 
During the World War, India contributed £100,000,000 to 
the War Funds, and £140,000,000 in War Loans. ‘The 
manufactured products sent to Great Britain and her Allies 
during the War were worth £250,000,000. 


RECENT. BIBLIOGRAPHY 
INDIA AND CEYLON 


From Bangkok to Bombay, F. G. Carpenter. ’24, Double- 
day. 

Ethics of India, E. W. Hopkins. ’24, Yale Press. 

Among the Brahmins and Pariahs, J. A. Santes. ’24, Boni. 

South Indian Hours, O. J. Couldry. ’24, Houghton. 

India, L. J. Ronaldshay. ’24, Houghton. 

Defense of India, A. Vincent. ’23, Oxford. 

Om, T. Mundy. ’24, Bobbs. 

India Old and New, V. Chirol. ’21, Macmillan. 

Mysterious India, R. Chauvelot. ’21, Century. 

India at the Crossways, J. 8. Meston. ’20, Macmillan. 

Glimpses of Bengal, R. Tagore. ’21, Macmillan. 


PILBLIOGRAPHY 421 


Gospel and the Plow, S. Higginbottom. ’21, Macmillan. 

In the Land of the Salaam, B. Wilson. ’21, Powell & White. 

Glimpses of the South Seas and India, T. Ketowa. ’20, 

Stechert. 

Building with India, D. J. Fleming. ’22, Missionary Edu- 
cation Press. 

Round About Calcutta, R. J. Minney. ’23, Oxford. 

India, P. Loti. ’20, Stokes. 

Topee and Turban, H. A. Newell. ’21, Lane. 

Intimate Glimpses of Life in India, Prof. G. T. Ladd. ’19, 
Badger. 

India, Old and New, E. W. Hopkins. Yale University 
Press. 

India’s Silent Revolution, F. B. Fisher. ’19, Macmillan. 

Kipling’s India, A. Munson. ’15, Doubleday. 

Murray’s Handbook of India. ’13, Scribner. 

Southern India, P. E. Penny. ’14, Macmillan. 

Gardens of the Great Moghuls, C. M. V. Stuart. ’13, Mac- 
millan. 

Old World Through New Eyes, M.S. Ware. 717, Putnam. 

Aris and Crafts in India and Ceylon, A. Coomaraswami. 
14, Phillips. 

My Reminiscences, R, Tagore. °17, Macmillan, 


CEYLON 


“The Eden of the Eastern Wave” 


EYLON, which is veritably a treasure island, is 
€; called by old geographers “the utmost Indian isle.” 
It literally has “spicy breezes,” as it is the home of 

the cinnamon tree and all other aromatic spices. Here are 
also precious stones in exceptional variety and abundance, 
such as sapphires, rubies, chrysoberyl, garnets, cat’s-eyes, 
moonstones, pearls, etc. “Towering palms, waving groves 
of giant bamboos, and flowers flaming like Joseph’s coat of 
many colours, everywhere decorate the amazing world of 


422 CEYLON 


vegetation. The beauty of the varied landscape, combined 
with the luxuriance of tropical verdure, which is not so lush 
nor so touched with decay as in Java, makes Ceylon a ver- 
itable dreamland. 

Beginning with 1815, Great Britain, which previously 
had only partial control of the Island, made complete con- 
quest. The King of Kandy was one of the most cruel mon- 
sters in human annals, and the numerous accounts of his 
brutalities stirred the English people at Colombo with 
indignation. When a party of native merchants from 
Colombo went to Kandy on a trading expedition, and only 
a few survivors came back with ears, noses and hands cut 
off, an English army was sent up, which defeated and de- 
throned the King, and thus the whole Island came into 
British hands. ‘The progress since the English occupation 
has been most remarkable. Slavery has been abolished, an 
educational system has been introduced, and railroads and 
macadamized highways have been constructed. ‘There is an 
absence of beggary and want, and absolutely no taxes are 
collected from the natives, except a modest poll tax. ‘The 
head of the English Government is the Governor General, 
who rules the various districts by means of agents, who in 
turn have under their authority native provincial officers, to 
whom the various heads of villages and towns are directly 
responsible. 


THE PEOPLE 


The Cinghalese are descendants of the Singhs and are 
Aryan people, but they are mixed with Arab, Portuguese 
and ‘Tamil stock. The Tamils can be distinguished by their 
black hue and their shaven heads, while genuine Cinghalese 
wear their hair long, the men having it put up in a sort of 
Psyche knot on the back of the head, which in the hill 
country is crowned by a grotesque tortoise shell comb, giv- 
ing the impression of satanical horns. Seventy-five per cent. 
of the inhabitants are Cinghalese, using a language allied to 
Sanskrit. 


Peeiee PEO PL E 423 


The Cinghalese men have a gentle, almost deprecatory 
manner, intensified by the peculiar custom of wearing their 
hair, which adds not a little to their feminine appearance. 

Bishop Heber of Calcutta was quite right in praising 
in his missionary hymn the “spicy breezes” and the “‘pleas- 
ing prospects” of Ceylon. He should, however, have re- 
served the phrase “and only man is vile” for Calcutta, where 
it is more applicable, as the Cinghalese are singularly kindly, 
tractable, law-abiding and devoted to their families. 

There is a conglomeration of races, Colombo especially 
being a hodge-podge of Cinghalese, Hindus of every caste, 
Parsees, Malays, Afghans and Arabs, with almost every race 
in Asia and Africa represented, not to mention Europe and 
America. ‘The aboriginal tribe of Ceylon are the Veddahs 
who run wild in the mountains. 


COLOMBO 


Colombo, a city of 250,658 (1921), is like a modern 
European city, with a prevalence of English names, such as 
Victoria Park, Edinboro Crescent, Cinnamon Gardens, 
Ridgeway Golf Links, and the like. It is situated on a plain 
around the circle of one of the finest harbours in the Far 
East, and is an important trade port. The harbour is pro- 
tected by huge breakwaters, the corner stone of the south- 
west breakwater having been laid in 1875 by King Edward 
VII., who was then the Prince of Wales. 

The city is embowered in a wealth of brilliant green 
foliage, its handsome ivy-covered houses and bungalows 
showing their chocolate coloured roofs among the palm trees. 


SIGHTSEEING 


The Cinnamon Gardens are a series of shaded roads, 
fringed with attractive bungalows framed in lovely gardens. 
The ride around the Race Course, past Prince’s Club, the 
Colombo cricket grounds and the Ladies’ Golf Links, con- 


424 CEYLON 


cluding with a drive over Flower Road, gives a delightful 
impression of Colombo and its wonderful suburbs. ‘The 
avenues of graceful palms, the glorious gardens and the 
hedges ablaze with the scarlet hibiscus, make a superb moving 
picture. 

Another charming drive begins by crossing the bridge 
behind the Galle Face Hotel to Slave Island, passing the 
residence of the General in Chief of the Ceylon Army, and 
including Victoria Park, the charming Buddhist temple op- 
posite the General’s house, the Cinnamon Gardens and the 
Museum. 

The Colombo Museum, built in 1877, has a fine exhibit 
of Ceylon architectural objects, native jewellery, “taxi- 
dermed”’ animals and birds, native costumes, Buddhas, devils 
and boat models, besides native handicraft in gold, silver, 
brass and ivory. It is open every day from ten to six 
(except Sunday, when it is open from three to six), but is 
closed on Friday. 

The Kelaniya Temple, dating from 1301, is one of the 
conspicuous Buddhist temples in Ceylon. Here are to be 
seen Hindu idols as well as Buddhas, illustrating the fusion, 
and, in a measure, the confusion, between Buddhism and 
Hinduism. 

Mount Lavinia is eight miles distant from Colombe: and 
makes an objective for a most enjoyable auto ride. It gives 
a very happy blending of ocean and inland views, one side 
showing the sinuous water front with its fringed palm trees 
and vistas of the azure sea, and the other giving the attract- 
ive suburbs of Colombo, with a setting of distant emerald 
mountains. ‘The Hotel Mount Lavinia is a stone building 
set upon an eminence. 

The Native Shops are sometimes in the open air, as well 
as in stores, and they display every variety of Cinghalese 
workmanship in metalwork, necklaces, and other forms of 
ornamental jewellery, set in pearls and all kinds of precious 
stones. Of course, as everywhere in the Orient, careful bar- 
gaining is necessary. It is also very important to get a 


COLOMBO A25 


written guarantee from the proprietor with his signature 
stating that the various jewels are genuine. Genuine gar- 
nets, moonstones and spinels are abundant and at reasonable 
prices, while rubies, sapphires, amethysts, cat’s-eyes, and star 
stones are rather rare and are expensive. 

The weather in Colombo is extremely warm in the middle 
of the day, and yet the heat is not at other times excessive. 
‘The mean annual temperature of Colombo is 81° F., while 
that of Kandy is but 75.5° F. There is an abundant rainfall 
in Ceylon, varying from fifty to one hundred and fifty inches 
‘annually. 

At Colombo, the principal hotels are the Grand Oriental, 
the Galle Face, and the Bristol, with usually very high 
charges. Motor and carriage charges are very flexible. It 
is best to get definite information from the hotel manager 
regarding these rates, 


COLOMBO TO KANDY 


One usually goes from Colombo to Kandy by railroad, 
starting from the Fort Station at Colombo, travelling in 
very comfortable cars. Or the tourist can preferably take 
one of several routes by auto, passing through the multiplied 
charms to be seen in seventy-two miles of intervening dis- 
tance. ‘This trip in either case is an extraordinarily beau- 
tiful one, with hardly an equal in tropical lands. ‘The best 
views are on the right side of the car on the way to Kandy. 
‘The course follows the Kelani River, where leisurely-moving, 
double canoes may be seen, together with native laundrymen 
along its banks who seem to be trying, as Mark Twain 
said, ‘‘to split a stone with a shirt.” 

On every side one can see paddy, or rice, fields, great 
groves of palm and plaintain trees, and evidences of inten- 
sive agriculture. 

After going fifty miles, the ascent becomes noticeably 
steep, and imposing peaks loom up in the distance. Among 
these are weird and conspicuous masses of rock, with shapes 


426 GCEY LOW 


that suggested their names, like Castle Rock, Lion Rock, 
and Bible Rock. Adam’s Peak, 7,353 feet, also commands 
attention. If any one should take time to climb to the top 
of this Peak, he will be shown a huge footstep, large enough 
for a Cyclops, which the Hindus claim is the footstep of 
Siva, the Buddhists that it is the footstep of Buddha, and 
the Mohammedans and Portuguese that it is the footstep 
of Adam. Sensation Rock is the climax of mountain scen- 
ery on this trip. 

As one ascends, extensive tea fields and cacao plantations 
appear, the bushes of the latter having large orange-red pods. 
As one approaches Peradeniya, where the famous Botanical 
Gardens are located, one crosses the venerated Mahavali- 
gauga River, the largest in Ceylon, bordering the Gardens, 
along whose shores the train has moved. At this point the 
temple elephants can sometimes be seen taking their baths, 
and going through all kinds of spectacular antics while in 
the water, Kandy itself is four miles beyond Peradeniya. 


KANDY 


Kandy lies in a valley, encircled by hills, on the shores 
of an exquisite lake, beautifully wooded. In the centre of 
the Lake is a small island with a ruined arch, suggesting a 
Greek setting. The Lake was artificially made by the last 
king of Kandy, and, according to the story, the island was 
used by him as a place to banish troublesome wives. 

The Lake is not visible until one gets on the elevation, 
upon which the Queens Hotel is situated. This hotel is 
excellent and one of the largest in Asia. In going to the 
Hotel from the Railroad Station, one passes along Ward 
Street, where the Post Office, a very large market building, 
and the principal shops are located. “The Planters’ Associa- 
tion, which is organised for developing agriculture, is also 
situated here, as well as the Kandy Club, and other modest 
structures. 

Opposite the Hotel, one can see the raised bank which 


KANDY 427 


encloses the waters of the Lake. Going along this lake- 
front road for a few hundred feet, we find the Victoria 
Esplanade, a small Park with several monuments. Here 
one faces the Temple of the Tooth. Immediately adjoin- 
ing the Temple is the splendid Palace of the former Kandy 
kings, which is now used by the British Government for ad- 
ministrative ofices. ‘To the right is a road which com- 
pletely encompasses the Lake, and this makes a ride so alto- 
gether lovely and flawless that it is a subject for a poet’s 
rhapsodies. A little beyond, on Malabar Street, are the 
‘Art Museum, the Government Offices, the Court House, 
and some handsome residences. 

Among the glorious trees which fringe the Lake are the 
ingasamen or rain trees, with charming pink blossoms; the 
spathodias, with very large vivid red blossoms; the lager- 
stroemis, with flowers in purple pyramids, as well as royal 
palms and monster groups of bamboos. At the further end 
of the Lake is the Garden Club, where tennis, cricket and 
croquet are played. After winding around half of the 
circle of the Lake and coming back on the opposite side, 
one sees the Suisse Hotel and the Malwatta Temple. 

There are some beautiful drives in the region around 
Kandy, including Lady Horton’s Walk, where the peerless 
panoramic view of Kandy and its environments can be seen 
from a high bluff, the Upper Lake Road, and Lady Long- 
den’s Drive. ‘These all furnish enchanting scenery. If 
there is time, a wonderful motor trip can be taken, seventy- 
three miles to Nuwara Eliya, which has an altitude of 6,200 
feet, and is a great health resort. 

As one views the whole setting of Kandy and its environ- 
ment, it is easily understood why the natives have a proverb 
that Kandy is “only forty miles from heaven,” and all visit- 
ors will say that it comes nearer the conception of a Garden 
of Eden than perhaps any other place on earth. 

Here at Kandy the banished Arabi Pasha lived in lonely 
but lovely seclusion for many years, before being permitted 
in his old age to return to Egypt. It is an interesting psy- 


428 CEYLON 


chological fact that a veritable Paradise will not satisfy a 
person suffering from home-sickness. 


TEMPLE OF THE (Oya 


Kandy is especially famous because of its Temple, in which 
Buddha’s tooth is believed by his devotees to be treasured. 
At any rate, this Temple and its priceless relic are held in 
worshipful reverence by at least a quarter of the entire 
world’s population. It means to them what Mecca does 
to the Mohammedans, or Jerusalem to the Christian and 
the Jew. Gautama Buddha, according to tradition, made 
three visits to Ceylon, the last time ascending Adam’s Peak, 
where he is supposed to have left the sacred footprint. 
Buddhism was introduced into Ceylon in 307 B. Cc. 

Up to 1566 a.p., Kandy was an obscure village, but at _ 
that time, Buddha’s tooth was put for safe-keeping into what 
had been an insignificant temple. From that moment, its 
supreme importance in the Buddhist world was assured. 

This tooth was said to have been rescued from the ashes 
of Buddha’s funeral pyre 2,500 years ago. At various times 
it was in the possession of the Malabars and the Portuguese. 
The tooth, reputed to be the original, however, was publicly 
burned at Goa, in the presence of the Viceroy and his suite, 
by the Portuguese in 1560. 

The tooth is preposterously large, being over two inches 
in length and an inch in diameter, and is probably the tooth 
of a wild boar, although reputed to be the left eye-tooth of 
Buddha. A look at the replica, which may be seen at the 
Museum in Colombo, emphasises the fact that it could not 
be the tooth of a human being, unless it were from the 
original giant in the fairy story of “Jack the Giant Killer.” 
The more intelligent Buddhists recognise that it cannot pos- 
sibly be genuine, but it would almost undermine the founda- 
tion of Buddhism to make any such public declaration. 

When the tooth was placed in the little temple at Kandy 
four hundred years ago, the Temple was immediately en- 
larged, and the village became a great religious centre, and 





A CINGHALESE MADONNA 


TEMPLE OF THE TOOTH AT KANDY 


Author in the foreground 


mem DH A'S TOOTH 429 


finally the seat of the Kandy kings. Buddhists, from that 
day to this, have come from all parts of the world to make 
their pilgrimage to Kandy, bringing not only tributes of 
fruits and flowers, but also of jewels, and gold and silver 
ornaments. ‘The tooth is carefully secluded, and can only 
be seen by royal visitors (especially Burmese), except at the 
great religious celebration, held at Kandy during two weeks 
in August. On such gala occasions, it is publicly shown. 
The priests enter the inner shrine, where the precious tooth 
is guarded, and the silver and ivory doors of the golden 
casket are opened. ‘This casket, set on a massive silver 
table, which contains the tooth, is then disclosed behind the 
gilded bars. 

The tooth is enclosed in five distinct receptacles of the 
casket, which are adorned with rubies, emeralds and dia- 
monds. It is set on a little pivot amid the petals of a golden 
lotus flower, and is exposed to view for a moment, although 
a very few can actually see it. It is then carried in its 
casket through the streets, on the back of a sacred elephant, 
as the crowning feature of the imposing procession. ‘The 
ceremony draws visitors from the whole Buddhist 
world. 

As the visitor approaches the Temple, he is beset by hordes 
of beggars, many of them misshapen and blind, some of 
whom are said to have been thus malformed in childhood in 
order to be more effective as beggars. Both inside and out- 
side the Temple, there are many celibate Buddhist priests, 
varying from novices to patriarchs, all with bare and shaven 
heads, wearing the inevitable yellow robe, which leaves one 
arm and shoulder bare, and usually carrying a parasol and 
palm-leaf fan. As a whole, they are quite intelligent and 
are always courteous to strangers. While cremation is ex- 
ceptional among the people of Ceylon, Buddhist priests are 
usually cremated with impressive ceremonies. 

In a pool of the moat outside the wall of the Temple there 
are hundreds of sacred turtles, which are fed by Buddhist 
pilgrims in order to obtain “merit.” 


430 CEYLON 


Opposite the Temple of the Tooth is a Temple with some 
hideous figures of Hindu gods, although here it is associated 
with Buddhism, together with a great recumbent Buddha 
filling up most of the space inside a tiny Buddhist temple. 

Here there is also a sacred bo tree (ficus religiosa), a 
lovely shade tree, with brilliant green leaves, which rustle 
at every breath of wind like the patter of raindrops, flashing 
and flickering in the sunlight. The leaves tremble in agi- 
tated reverence, according to the Buddhists, because Buddha 
came and taught beneath its branches. It was worshipped at 
a much earlier date by the Brahmans, who claimed that 
Brahma planted it. ‘To Buddhists it is the most sacred of 
emblems, a living representation of Buddha himself, who is 
supposed to have said ‘He, who worships it, will receive the 
same reward, as if he worshipped me in person.” ‘They 
regard it profanation to rob the tree of a leaf, and wor- 
shippers will wait as in a trance for the wind to loosen a 
leaf so that it will flutter down to them as a precious pos- 
session to be put in a shrine and be made the object of 
adoration. ‘The original tree, under which Buddha is sup- 
posed to have sat, is in Buddha-Gaya in India, and is espe- 
cially venerated. 


THE ROYAL BOTANT GA 
GARDENS 


The Royal Botanical Gardens at Peradeniya, four miles 
from Kandy, are of the same class as those at Buicenzorg 
and Demerara, in some ways surpassing all others. ‘The 
English Government began, nearly a century agu, to make 
this an experimental station for the cultivation and develop- 
ment of rubber, cacao, allspice, pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, 
cloves, vanilla, ginger, cocaine, camphor, tea and coffee, and 
all these products may be seen here under the highest culti- 
vation. Every spice, flavouring extract, perfume and 
medicinal ingredient seems to flourish in this garden. Gradu- 
ally the garden was enlarged, and an effort was made to 


MO eh GARDENS 431 


get specimens of all trees and plants that grow in tropical 
and sub-tropical lands. 

The following are the important drives, which can be 
taken by carriage or rikisha: 

The Main Central drive with a wealth of tropical foliage 
and flowering shrubs. 

The Monument Drive, leading to the Gardiner Monu- 
ment. 

The Liana Drive, displaying many tropical climbers. 

Everyone should also visit the Orchid House, the Octagon 
Conservatory, and the Tank containing water plants, such 
as the Egyptian papyrus and the giant water-lily (Victoria 
regia). 

In these drives, one sees scores of species of palms, in- 
cluding the celebrated traveller palms and sealing wax palms. 
The talipot palm blooms once in every fifty years, present- 
ing a splendid climax of beauty for a brief period, and then 
dies. ‘The Brazil nut tree, the kola tree, and the “deadly 
Upsas tree” (so overworked in melodrama), which is really 
perfectly harmless, are among the hundreds found here. 
Special trees are shown, which were planted by King Ed- 
ward VII and King George V, in their visits, when they 
were the Prince of Wales. ‘These face the Great Circle, a 
circular lawn with a round group of palms in the middle. 
‘There are mighty trees, clothed in such floral beauty, that 
the flowers seem to fall like red and yellow cascades from 
their tops. Camphor shrubs, aloe plants from which sisal 
is drawn, sensitive plants, plants with leaves shaped like 
elephants’ ears, and others like peacocks’ tails, are to be 
seen. Hundreds of flowering plants are here whose names 
would not be recognised, but hibiscus, poinsettias, salvias, 
orchids, and pitcher plants are in gorgeous perfection. All 
the fruit trees, that grow in tropical countries, are also 
splendidly represented, but people should remember that trop- 
ical fruits as such, cannot compare in flavour with the fruits 
of the temperate and sub-tropical zones. 

The cinnamon naturally grows to the size of small trees, 


432 CEYLON 


but for commercial purposes it is kept cropped down 
to thick bushes, which send up long, willowy shoots, yield- 
ing the cinnamon of commerce. 

The milk of young cocoanuts is very refreshing, and is 
entirely free from bacteria. “The kernel, when ripe, makes 
the copra of commerce. ‘The flower of the cocoanut tree 
is sometimes tapped, and the sap made into a sweet drink 
called ‘‘toddy.”” When fermented, it makes “arrack,’’ which 
is very intoxicating and degenerating in its effects. 

The Garden also contains a fernery and a greenhouse 
with rare flowers, and outside the garden is a race course 
and a golf club. 


TEA CULDPTRE 


Tea, of course, is the great staple, not only in its pro- 
duction, but as a topic of conversation over the tea cups of 
Ceylon. ‘The average yearly crop is well toward a quarter 
of a billion pounds, over half of which goes to Great Brit- 
ain. ‘The fact that the coffee “blight,” which visited Cey- 
lon, as well as Java, in 1880, largely interfered with the 
former success of coffee raising, has made Ceylon turn to 
tea as the great magnum opus. 

‘There were scarcely a thousand acres of tea under cul- 
tivation in 1875, now there are 385,000 acres. ‘Lhe finest 
tea lands are 5,000 feet above the level of the sea, and 
choice plantations bring fabulous prices. Most of the large 
plantations are owned and controlled by stock companies. 
The labourers are largely ‘'amils from India, and get wages 
of less than a rupee (thirty-two cents) a day. It should 
be remembered, however, that they are furnished food, shel- 
ter, fuel, the services of a doctor, and schools for their chil- 
dren, free of charge. “The men do the heavy manual part 
of the work, and the women do the picking of the tea. 

The tea plant is really a tree, and left to itself would 
grow to a height of twenty to thirty feet, but scientific prun- 
ing keeps it to an average height of three feet, as the young 


Mal als PRODUCTS 433 


leaves and shoots are more compact and accessible. The 
plants are perennial, and the leaves are picked every ten or 
twelve days throughout the year. The quality is determined 
by the delicacy of the part of the bush that is picked. That 
which is chosén from the buds and tips is called ‘‘flowery,” 
and if young leaves are included it is orange-pekoe. ‘Then, 
as subordinate in value, come pekoe, souchong, congou, and 
dust. With every considerable estate there is a factory, 
where all the processes of drying, rolling, fermenting, firing 
and sifting are carried on, as well as the final packing in 
lead-lined cartons for market. ‘The conditions are always 
cleanly, much more so than they are in Japan and China, 
due to the fact that Englishmen have supervision. 

Rubber has the third place in Ceylon exports, 230,000 
acres and more being planted. ‘These trees need a hot, 
moist climate, but will thrive as far as 1,500 feet above sea 
level. ‘Three-quarters of a pound of rubber can be taken 
from a five-year-old tree, the amount increasing with age. 

Pearls. The Gulf of Manar, which lies in the fifty 
mile stretch between Ceylon and India, has furnished more 
pearls than all the rest of the world together. ‘The oyster, 
producing the pearl, is only distantly related to the oyster 
of America and Europe, and is never eaten. ‘The pearl is 
produced by the presence of a tiny parasite or grain of sand 
around which the oyster builds a pearly wall. 

Pearl fishing is not carried on during the entire year, but 
instead certain “fisheries” are announced by the Government, 
usually between February and April, when the oyster banks 
are in favourable condition. ‘Then there comes a flock of 
divers, gem buyers, etc., making sometimes a temporary city 
of 50,000 people. A single prince in India has pearls esti- 
mated at $7,500,000 in value, 


THE BUDDHISM OF CEYLON 


The Buddhism of Ceylon is debased by an admixture of 
Hinduism and Animism. As laid down by its founder, 


434 CEYLON 


Gautama Buddha, this religion, while ascetic and negative, 
has some very exalted precepts such as pity, charity and 
self-abnegation, as well as high standards of family virtues. 
The basis of his teaching is, that desire is the occasion of 
suffering and sorrow, and that the suppression and annihila- 
tion of all desire is the supreme end of religion. Men are 
supposed to pass through a series of reincarnations, either 
in a downward progression, if an evil life is chosen, or in 
an upward gradation toward perfection if one lives an up- 
right life, in the latter case rising to the heights, on the 
stepping stones of a succession of dead selves. Nirvana is 
the merging of the perfected soul into the Infinite. 

Much of this idealism has been sunk in superstition and 
sheer idolatry. Buddha himself never claimed divine origin 
or divine powers. ‘The degradations of Hinduism have done 
much to vitiate the high moral standards of the original 
Buddhism. 

Buddhists, however, in Ceylon and elsewhere, represent 
a distinctly higher type of intelligence and morality than do 
the Hindus of India. It is a real tragedy that India, where 
Buddha was born, and where he laboured many years to 
reform Hinduism, should have repudiated his teachings. 

While Buddhism does not recognise caste as such, there 
are several outcast classes in Ceylon, who are refused all 
the ordinary sanctions of society. “The most conspicuous is 
the rodiya caste, the people of which are rather limited in 
numbers, but are shunned as though they were plague car- 
riers. Some of the squalid communities of these abhorred 
outcasts are within sight of Kandy. ‘They are really human 
pariahs, living in secluded settlements in utter exile and 
degradation. 


SUPPLEMENTARY f24 
AND FIGs 


Ceylon is 271 by 137 miles and has an area of 25,332 
square miles, being about four-fifths the size of Ireland. It 


Poa AND FIGURES 435 


is fifty miles distant from India. The population in 1922 
was 4,621,147. 

Ceylon is a colony under the British Government ruled 
by a Governor, aided by an Executive Council of seven 
members and a Legislative Council of thirty-seven mem- 
bers, the Governor always presiding. Sir William H. Man- 
ning, appointed April, 1918, is the present Governor, with 
a salary of £7,000. 

Of the entire population, 2,770,000 are Buddhists, 
982,000 are Hindus, 303,000 are Mohammedans, and 
443,000 are Christians, the latter being mostly Roman 
Catholics, dating back to the Portuguese occupation. 

The Government Schools have an enrolment of 132,000 
children, the teaching being mostly in the vernacular. ‘There 
were 520 students in the technical schools in 1921. 

Revenues in 1924 were £5,284,674; expenditures, 
£5,157,271. 

Imports (1921) were £26,205,000; exports £25,660,000, 
the latter being principally tea, rubber, copra and spices. 
Strange to say, the export of elephants is quite an item and 
the Government collects a tax of 200 rupees on each one 
exported. There were 731 miles of railway in 1922. 

The money used is the India rupee worth 32 American 
cents, but instead of being divided into annas, is divided into 
100 cents. Fifty, twenty-five and ten cent silver pieces are 
current, and also smaller copper coins. 


THE SUEZ CANAL 


N the way to Suez, the regular steamers often stop 
() at Aden, a city with a population of 46,000, which 
is near the entrance to the Red Sea. Aden was 
captured by the British in 1839, and they have held it, in 
spite of numerous assaults by the various Arab tribes. ‘The 


436 THE SUEZ GAN wae 


city is built on a promontory five by three miles in extent, 
the highest point being ‘“The Rock,” about 1,700 feet in 
altitude, which is heavily fortified. 

Its bazaars show the diversified life of the desert and of 
Southern Asia. The magnificent system of rain-collecting 
cisterns, built by the Turks and repaired by the British, fur- 
nish the chief source of water supply. About 1,650 steamers 
stop here every. year, and it has a considerable export and 
import trade. 

The Red Sea is thirteen hundred miles long, and its 
greatest width is two hundred miles. The Peninsula of 
Sinai divides it into two forks, the Gulf of Suez and the 
Gulf of Akaba. The shores throughout are practically 
sterile, having arid plains and mountains as far as the eye 
can reach. 

The Sinaitic range is a marked feature of the western 
landscape of the Red Sea, but the Sinai mountain, thirty- 
seven miles away, can be seen from the steamer only for a 
few minutes. 

The town of Suez, according to tradition, is near the 
spot where the Children of Israel crossed the Red Sea. In 
1857, it was connected with Cairo by railway and began to 
assume some prominence. When the Canal was completed, 
it was of less importance, because steamers do not usually 
anchor here, ‘There is nothing of tourist interest, 


THE SUEZ CANAL 


Ferdinand de Lesseps was not the originator of the idea 
of a canal, which would join the Red Sea with the Mediter- 
ranean. Sixteen hundred years before Christ, Necho, a Per- 
sian king, considered the advisability of digging a canal, 
but was deterred by a warning from an oracle which stated 
that such a project would lead to a hostile invasion, which 
would rob him not only of the Canal but of his kingdom. 
Certainly this prophecy has been almost literally fulfilled 
in the case of Egypt. Rameses the Great and other Pha- 
raohs also entertained the idea. Ptolemy Philadelphus in 285_ 


Peat LD ESTO RY 437 


B. c. dug a canal, furnished with locks, from a place near 
the present Suez to the Heroppolite Gulf, at the head of 
the Bitter Lakes which was in operation for a century or 
more. The Roman emperors Trojan and Hadrian began 
work to rescue the obliterated canal from the desert sands, 
but the work languished. A century before our Pilgrim 
Fathers landed in Plymouth, Charles V of Spain was con- 
sidering the feasibility of such a canal. 

In 1800, the engineers of Napoleon took up the matter, 
but owing to their absurd error in calculation, which made 
it appear that the Red Sea was thirty feet lower than the 
Mediterranean, nothing came of their discussion. 

M. de Lesseps was not really an engineer but rather a 
plausible promoter and bargain maker. He gave up his posi- 
tion as a subordinate in the French Consul-General’s office 
in Egypt, to beguile the Suez Canal concession from Khedive 
Said. ‘This he secured, in 1856, on the basis that Egypt 
need not subscribe any funds whatever, and was to be guar- 
anteed fifteen per cent. of the gross returns, and in ninety- 
nine years the entire Suez property was to revert to Egypt. 
But as no money was forthcoming from Europe, de Lesseps 
persuaded the simple-minded Khedive Said, and his suc- 
cessor, Ismail Pasha, to borrow money from European 
usurers, and this was secured, although at ruinous rates. 

Egypt had no debt when the Canal was begun, but by 
the time it was finished in 1869, the Egyptian Government 
was simply swamped with national obligations, and was 
hopelessly in the clutches of European money lenders. 
Egyptian bonds, mostly held in England, were worth only 
half of their face value. 

England, which had not been favourable to the Canal 
project, saw an opportunity to checkmate de Lesseps, and 
brought pressure upon the Sultan of Turkey to send the 
Khedive, Ismail Pasha, into exile and have the finances of 
Egypt turned over to a commission of European adminis- 
trators. ‘This was done, and England saw to it that this 
Commission should be dominated by herself. 


438 THE SUEZ CANAL 


The banishment of the Khedive resulted, in 1882, in the 
Arabi Rebellion on the part of the tax-oppressed Egyptians, 
and as a result, English warships and soldiers were sent 
down to Egypt to put down the uprising, and there, until 
very recently, they have remained. England has, however, 
not wholly withdrawn from Egypt, as she has maintained 
her right to control and defend the Suez Canal, and still 
maintains a certain dominance over Egypt. 

Disraeli played a brilliant hand in securing control of the 
Canal. For $20,000,000, he secured a predominant control 
of the Canal shares, which were capitalised at 200,000,000 
francs, or $40,000,000, but which are now worth $135,- 
000,000. Certain French banking interests, which were ne- 
gotiating for the control of the Canal, found themselves out- 
witted by the clever Jewish Premier of England. ‘The Canal 
is still technically known as “La Compagnie Universale du 
Canal Maritine de Suez” with the principal office in Paris, 
but this is rather an empty compliment than otherwise. ‘The 
Canal is nominally international, but in reality is controlled 
by Great Britain. 

The international game of “grab” for the control of the 
Canal, which was being played between England and 
France, ended quite tragically, as far as de Lesseps was con- 
cerned. Withdrawing from the Suez Canal project, he 
organised a great Company in France to build the Panama 
Canal. After this project had spent $300,000,000, with 
only the remotest possibility of success, this French Company 
went into bankruptcy, and de Lesseps himself died a pauper 
in an insane asylum. 

‘The statue of bronze on the jetty at Port Said, gives the 
plausible promoter some permanent honour, although the 
financial fiasco at Suez and the collapse of the Panama 
swindle, prevented his friends from getting the name of the 
Suez Canal changed to the de Lesseps Canal. Port Said, 
however, gives permanent recognition to the name of the 
Khedive Said, who proved such an easy mark to the lures 
of de Lesseps, and the Khedive Ismail, though an exile in 


Wis CRIP TION 439 


Constantinople when the crash came, has his name perpetu- 
ated in the little city of Ismalia, the halfway railroad sta- 
tion on the Canal. 

The Canal has proved to be of incalculable benefit to the 
world’s commerce. It saves, for instance, two-fifths of the 
distance from Europe to Bombay and one-fourth to China. 

Its minimum width at the water level is 310 feet, although 
at some places it is quite wide, notably so where it enters 
Bitter Lake. ‘The depth is thirty-one feet, but dredging 
now in progress will increase it to thirty-six feet, making 
it safely navigable for very large ships. By a system of 
electric lighting, ships can pass by night as well as by day. 
Along the Canal are a series of stations with signal posts, 
so that traffic can be regulated by the block system. ‘The 
average time of passage is about twenty hours, as the maxi- 
mum speed permitted is five and a half nautical miles an 
hour. 

In 1916, the rate charged was 7.25 francs per ton (a ton 
is 100 cubic feet), although where there is ballast only, a 
reduction is made. For passengers there is a charge of ten 
francs for every person above twelve years, with a special 
rate for children. In 1916, the receipts were 76,119,000 
francs. 

By a decision in 1888, the Canal cannot be blockaded 
against vessels of other nations, whether armed or unarmed, 
or whether in times of peace or of war. Yet England by 
means of her warships and standing army could certainly 
delay unfriendly war craft. Over sixty per cent. of the 
Canal tonnage is British. In 1871, 765 steamers passed; 
in 1920, 4,009, with an aggregate tonnage of 17,574,657 
tons; in 1923, 22,777,000. 

The Suez Canal in reality presented no engineering dif- 
ficulties whatever. It was merely a question of digging a 
huge ditch through largely sandy soil along the line of least 
resistance. It cost $152,760,000, or about $1,500,000 a 
mile, although it is reported that a goodly half of this sum 
was used to influence Constantinople and Paris. Modern 


440 THE SUEZ CAwnee 


methods of engineering would do this work for a quarter 
of the amount expended. 

Port Said, a city of 55,000 inhabitants, one-fifth of whom 
are Europeans, is so flat, and so near the sea level, that it 
could scarcely be distinguished at a distance either from the 
Canal or from the Mediterranean, were it not for the 
Light House, 184 feet high, a conspicuous landmark by day 
and visible for twenty miles at night. The only other 
feature is a bronze statue of de Lesseps, erected by the Suez 
company. While Port Said has a reputation for spectacular 
wickedness of the baser sort, there is nothing of distinctively 
tourist interest. 

Two immense converging breakwaters make the Port Said 
harbour very safe. 

The offices of the Canal Company are conspicuous build- 
ings where the measurements and tonnage of the ships, as 
well as the lists of passengers, going through the Canal, are 
noted, 


E.G YP 


“An oasis of life between two deserts of death.” 


[Note: Egypt is one of the major objectives in Mediter- 
ranean travel, and hence it receives special emphasis and ex- 
tended descriptions in the author’s book, “The New 
Mediterranean Traveller,” also published by the Fleming H. 
Revell Co. ’Round the world tourists usually make shorter 
stops, and the limits of this volume make only a brief sum- 
mary possible. ] 


Egypt, and established an independent Government 

with its own ministry, money, taxes, commerce, 
foreign relationships and administration. 

Egypt was taken under the guardianship of England in 

1882, because, having become bankrupt, the European na- 


(); February 28, 1922, Fuad I was crowned King of 


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EGYPT 441 


tions feared that the Egyptian bonds which they held would 
become valueless. 

The Khedive, Ismail, had a royal contempt of debt. 
Verdi was commissioned to write Aida for the opening night 
of the new Cairo Opera House, which was built in six 
weeks. A five mile boulevard was constructed to the 
Pyramids, so that the French Empress Eugenie could go 
there in comfort, and the Khedive’s many extravagances, 
and the profligate financing of the Suez Canal, increased 
the debt of Egypt from $50,000,000 to $450,000,000 in 
twelve years. Asa result of the pressure of Europe, Ismail 
was banished, and his son, Mohammed Tewfik, succeeded 
him. The Arabi Rebellion, which was a protest against 
European domination, brought England into the field in 
1882 to suppress it. 

Although Great Britain nominally withdrew from Egypt 
in February, 1922, she still controls the Assuan Dam and 
the Sudan, as well as the Suez Canal and the right to step 
in and assume control if the life and property of foreginers 
are jeopardised. Ihe assassination of Sir Lee Stack, the 
Sirdar of the Sudan, in November, 1924, caused Great 
Britain to again assume a strong hand in Egypt, without, 
however cancelling Egypt’s independence. Six men proved 
to have been participants in the crime were tried and exe- 
cuted. Large indemnities were demanded and paid. Zaghlul 
Pasha, the open antagonist of England, resigned as Prime 
Minister and Ziwar Pasha, who is friendly, was substituted. 
Sir George Lloyd, former Governor of Bombay, has taken 
the place of Lord Allenby as military head. ‘The change in 
Egypt’s attitude has been very marked, and assassinations 
and lawless demonstrations have ceased. American women 
are again reasonably safe from insulting attempts at famil- 
larity, 


CAR. ©) 


Cairo, known as Masr by the common people, is a city 
of 790,000 inhabitants, of whom about 50,000 are Euro- 


442 EGTLe 


peans. It is a pot-pourri of medley populations, exceeded 
in its polyglot nationalities by no city on earth. It is eighty 
miles west of Suez and one hundred and thirty miles from 
Alexandria, and is twelve miles above the apex of the Delta 
of the Nile. On the one hundred mile triangle of the Nile 
Delta, six million people, exclusive of Cairo and Alexandria, 
cultivate three million acres, and produce their own food 
supplies, and export over $100,000,000 worth of cotton. 

Cairo is a cosmopolitan and polyglot city. From “The 
Thousand and One Nights” one might quote the following 
florid description: ‘‘He who hath not seen Cairo, hath not 
seen the world; its soil is gold; its Nile is a wonder; its 
women are like the black-eyed virgins of Paradise; its houses 
are palaces; its air is soft; its odours surpassing that of 
aloes-wood and cheering the heart ;—how can Cairo be other- 
wise, when it is the Mother of the World?” Some of this 
might apply to the modern city, but the odours in some of 
the slimy, narrow streets do not suggest attar of roses, nor 
do the women often suggest the houris of an oriental 
Paradise. 

The People. ‘The street scenes are particularly fascinat- 
ing and there is a heterogeneous population representing 
every country in Africa, Asia and Europe,—in fact, in the 
world. It is a bewildering conglomeration of races, bizarre 
colours and a thousand variations of costume. 

The colour of the turbans distinguishes the class or race. 
The descendants of the prophet wear white, Mecca pil- 
grims of a year’s standing wear green, dervishes of different 
sects wear blue, green and red. Scholars wear a light col- 
our. Coptic priests wear a black turban. ‘The turban is 
the length of a man’s body, being wrapped seven times 
around the head, and is often used as the wearer’s winding - 
sheet. Most modern Mohammedans wear European garb, 
retaining the red tarbush or fez. 

The women of the poorer class wear a black dress and a 
veil, the nose rings and nose rests for suspending a figured 
and very disfiguring veil being still common in Upper Egypt. 


CALE O 443 


The women of the better class are richly dressed in gaily 
coloured garments, still wearing, as a rule, the thin white 
gauze veils, leaving their eyes uncovered. 


Perea PALS SIGHT § 


The Citadel is on a spur of the Mokattam cliffs, 250 
feet high, and originally formed a bulwark of defence. It 
was built largely from the stones brought from the Gizeh 
pyramids. “The Mokattam heights to the south made it 
quite vulnerable to modern guns, and hence it capitulated 
in 1805 to Mohammed Ali. It gives a superb view of the 
whole city, with its oriental setting of domes and minarets; 
the stretches of the Nile and its network of canals; the 
rugged Mokattam hills and the billowy oceans of sand, in 
contrast with the vivid green of the fertile, irrigated fields; 
and the massive pyramids of Gizeh and of Memphis, giving 
an age-old background to the picture. 

The Sultan Hassan, or “superb” Mosque, near the 
Citadel, should not be missed, as it is one of the most im- 
posing Mohammedan mosques in existence. ‘The entrance 
is eighty-five feet high, the mausoleum has a dome 180 feet 
high, and the south minaret of 285 feet is the highest in 
Cairo. ‘The pulpit bronze door, adorned with damascene 
gold and silver work, the elaborate frieze, the sarcophagus 
of the Sultan and the fine central fountain, are all splendid 
specimens of Arabic work. 

The Mohammed Ali, or ‘Alabaster’ mosque, also near 
the Citadel, was built by the founder of the present Egyptian 
dynasty. It was begun in 1824 and finished in 1857, and 
is one of the conspicuous landmarks of Cairo. It has a 
more ornate interior than the Sultan Hassan Mosque and 
is particularly rich in arabesques and decorative details, but 
much of it is imitation marble and of inferior quality. ‘The 
view from the parapet outside the mosque is particularly 
fine. 

The Egyptian Museum, not far from the Nile Bridge, 
has the most important collection of Egyptian and Greek 


444 RG 


antiquities in the world, and hence it should receive gener- 
ous attention. A small, but very useful, catalogue of ex- 
hibits can be purchased for a trifling sum. Open every day 
except Friday. Hours, 9 A.M. to 5 P.M. It was founded 
by Mariette in 1857. It is a magnificent structure, built 
in the Greco-Roman style, and cost over a million dollars. 
The exhibits of the royal mummies are of surpassing inter- 
est, and the contents of the tomb of ‘Tutankhamen, most 
of which automatically come to the Museum, will have ab- 
sorbing attractiveness. At this writing, July 1, 1925, prac- 
tically all of the treasures of the two larger rooms of the 
tomb have been put into the Museum. ‘The sarcophagus, 
however, at Thebes has not yet been opened. 

The University of El-Azhar, “the Splendid,” goes back 
to 975, and is the largest and most important in Islam. In 
its various enlargements, it has maintained the old Arabian 
style of architecture, with admixture of the Persian. ‘The 
large Mosque court is enclosed by an arcade, and just ad- 
joining is the Sanctuary, with nine aisles and one hundred 
and forty marble columns. Students from different Mo- 
hammedan countries have their distinctive apartments, one 
being occupied by students from Mecca, another section 
being given over to blind students. 

In 1912, there were 15,000 students and 587 teachers, 
but the number has somewhat diminished, the number at this 
time being about 9,800. The complete curriculum lasts 
seventeen years. “The preparatory studies include grammar, 
rhetoric, logic, poetry, arithmetic and traditions. ‘Lhe pro- 
fessional studies are theology, jurisprudence and the minute 
study of the Koran. Such objects as history, geography and 
mathematics are optional. ‘The method is a slavish learning 
by rote, without developing initiative or independence of 
thought. 

The University is richly endowed, and many charity stu- 
dents are supported by the funds. No distinctions are made 
between them and the sons of rich officials and merchants. 

The Arabian Museum has many artistic and antiquarian 


SIGHTSEEING 445 


exhibits, largely from old mosques and palaces, of special 
interest to historians and antiquarians. It includes the 
Khedivial Library of nearly 80,000 volumes, largely in Ori- 
ental languages, and there is a collection of 3,800 coins of 
the Mohammedan rulers of Egypt. 

Old Cairo is frequently visited because of the Island of 
Rhoda, reached by a crude ferry. ‘The Nilometre, con- 
structed in 715, is a unique object of interest. “The zero 
level is twenty-eight feet above the Mediterranean, and when 
it reaches a certain height, the sheikh of the Nilometre 
announces a wafa or general irrigation. 

The Abu Sirga, the old Coptic Church, goes back to 
859 A. D., and was built over another church much older, 
the present crypt going back early in the Christian era. 
According to tradition, it is the place where the Holy Family 
stayed for a month, during their flight to Egypt. Here 
will be found very unusual wood and ivory carvings, but 
the church as a whole is very dingy. It is popularly sup- 
posed to have been founded by St. Mark about 37 a.p. 
While it still maintains a Christian type of worship, it is 
sadly degenerate, but monogamy has remained the family 
standard, and the Copts are particularly susceptible to mod- 
ern missionary endeavour. ‘There are twenty-three Coptic 
churches in Cairo alone, and in Upper Egypt whole villages 
are given over to them. 

The Tombs of the Caliphs, on the east side of Cairo, 
are the northernmost group of structures in the city, and 
while having some historical value, there is little to attract 
the sightseeing tourist. “The same may be said of the 
Tombs of the Mamelukes, south of the Citadel. 

The New Heliopolis is a suburban residential section 
and health resort, with a superb hotel, and charming sur- 
roundings. It has a “Luna Park,” a stadium, a race course 
and athletic grounds. 

At Matariyeh is the so-called Virgin’s Tree, a sycamore 
where the Holy Family is alleged to have rested in their 
journey, and the obelisk of red granite, sixty-six feet in 


4.46 EGYPT 


height. Here in the ancient On, or city of the Sun, Moses 
met and married Asenath, the daughter of the priest of On. 
The Obelisk, which is a conspicuous landmark here, was 
erected in the time of Abraham, and is one of the finest in 
existence, but is scarcely worth a visit. 

Various church activities are carried on by the Greek 
Catholic, the Roman Catholic and the Armenian Churches, 
and by the Church Missionary Society of England. ‘The 
American Mission carried on by the United Presbyterian 
Church has 195 missionaries, ninety-three organised churches, 
sixty of which are entirely self-supporting and more than 
16,000 communicants. ‘The headquarters of the Mission 
are located just opposite Shepheards, in Cairo. 


THE PY RA wie 


In going to the Pyramids, one has occasion to ride over 
the imposing Kasr en-Nil Bridge, 1,680 feet long, afterwards 
passing by the charming public gardens enclosing Ghezireh 
Palace,—now an apartment hotel. ‘The Aquarium, the 
Zoological gardens and the Khedivial Sporting Club are 
also along the highway. 

The Pyramids, which stretch from Fayoum to Gizeh, 
are the tombs of the Pharaohs reigning from about 3000 B. c. 
to 2000 B.c. ‘They form one of the seven ancient wonders 
of the world, which, together with the Great Wall of China, 
are the only two now remaining. Doubtless, they would 
be included among the seven modern wonders. It has been 
estimated that the Pyramid of Cheops has 2,300,000 blocks 
of stone, averaging two and a half tons in weight. Herodotus 
is on record that it took 100,000 men twenty years to con- 
struct it. 

The Gizeh Pyramids are erected on the edge of the Libyan 
desert, and are the second of the series of six groups, and 
the most gigantic of all. ‘They were the marvel of He- 
rodotus and of other Greek and Roman travellers, and have 
figured in ancient, as well as modern, literature. 


Still 





PYRAMID AND SPHINX 
MODERN INNOVATIONS 





Pieh PYRAMIDS 447 


It is usually believed that each King planned a modest 
pyramid, so that in. case of a short reign, his tomb would 
be ready, but if his reign was extended, he would keep 
adding additional layers, although some long-lived kings 
were less ambitious to have so imposing a monument. ‘The 
inordinate ambition and prolonged reign of Cheops and 
Khefre enabled them to outbuild all competitors. 

The Pyramids were plundered by robbers even in the 
time of the early Persians and of the later Romans, and 
there are evidences of tunnelling and mining. With the 
exception, however, of the contents of the King’s Chamber 
and that of the Queen, and lesser remains discovered in the 
smaller rooms, none of the anticipated treasures were found. 

‘The Pyramids have had nearly all of the outer layer of 
stone carried away, and consequently are slightly smaller 
than before the vandalism occurred. ‘The present height 
of the Cheops pyramid, for instance, is 450 feet, while orig- 
inally it was 481 feet. 

The Pyramid of Cheops is 746 feet long at the foot of 
the three sides, measures two-fifths of a mile in making the 
complete trip around it, and covers thirteen acres. ‘The 
material used is a yellowish limestone quarried near by. 

The ascent is very tiring, although entirely safe, and 
requires fifteen or twenty minutes. ‘The top is level and is 
thirty-six feet square. “The view gives a striking contrast 
between the death of the desert, and the life of the irrigated 
land and of the teeming city. 

The interior is scarcely worth visiting, as the air is hot 
and stifling, the passages only three and a half feet high 
and four feet wide, and there is little to be seen but bare 
walls. The Great Hall is one hundred and fifty-five feet 
long and twenty-eight feet high and shows extraordinarily 
skillful masonry. ‘The tomb chamber is one hundred and 
forty feet above the ground level of the pyramid and meas- 
ures seventeen by thirty-five feet. In the Tomb Chamber 
there is left only an empty and scarred sarcophagus with- 
out inscription. 


448 EGP 


The Second, or Kheren, Pyramid is 447 feet high (orig- 
inally 471), only three feet less than Cheops, but it appears 
larger from certain angles, because it is built on higher 
ground. 

The Third Pyramid is 204 feet high and its granite cov- 
ering is in better preservation than either of the others. 

The Sphinx, sixty-six feet high, has been chiselled out 
of the natural rock and represents a crouching lion with a 
kingly head, wearing a royal headcloth. It represents 
Harmaku, the sun-god. It is badly mutilated, the original 
nose and beard having almost disappeared, but it still has 
a pose of majesty and mystery. It should be remembered 
that it is a male god who is represented, and hence should 
be spoken of as “he.” ‘The Greek sphinx, on the other 
hand, which according to the legend was destroyed by 
CEdipus, was a female monster with the body of a lion, 
and the breasts and head of a woman. 

Most of the Egyptian sphinx is covered by the shifting 
sands of the desert, and it has at various times from the 
period of Thotmes IV been uncovered, but now most of 
the base, and the body of the lion, including a small temple, 
are buried. 

The Granite ‘Temple is one hundred and forty-seven 
feet square and forty-three feet in height. It has various 
corridors and a main Hypostyle Hall, together with a deep 
well in which Mariette found the famous statue of 
Khefren, now placed in the Cairo Museum. 

The discoveries at Sakhara and Dashur by the Harvar&® 
Boston excavators in February, 1924, revealed a royal tomb 
and some extraordinary treasures, surpassing those of Tut- 
ankhamen, dating back to the Fourth Dynasty, about 3000 
B.C, i 


MEMPHIS 


A great city once stood here, one of the largest of an- 
tiquity, but now there remain only some fragmentary ruins 
and a Necropolis, or city of the dead. ‘The original city 


MEMPHIS 449 


was supposed to have been founded by Menes, the first ruler 
in Egyptian history. Several remarkable features, however, 
of the old period still remain. 

The colossal Statue of Rameses II, once at the entrance 
of a great temple, has a length, including the crown (now 
unattached), of thirty-two feet. Near by is an immense 
sphinx, twenty-six feet long and weighing eighty tons. 

A still larger Colossus, now enclosed and visible by climb- 
ing some wooden steps, is forty-two feet in height. 

Here are also a series of eleven pyramids, including the 
great Step-pyramid, two hundred feet high, and dating back 
to 4240 B.c., although some of these pyramids and burial 
places go back to even earlier and pre-dynastic days. 

The Necropolis of Sakkara includes the subterranean 
‘Tombs of Apis, or sacred bulls. Here are shown a series 
of monster stone bulls, stretched along a corridor 1,140 
feet long, where in the old days offerings were made in wor: 
ship. A great sphinx avenue originally led through the 
Necropolis, of which some traces remain. 

The Mastaba of Ti is a private tomb of a high court 
official, the mural reliefs giving a series of pictures of sac- 
rifices, servants bearing gifts, agricultural activities, ships, 
industrial objects,—all of which are among the choicest and 
best preserved among Egyptian specimens of art. 

The best way to reach Memphis is by automobile, and the 
trip can be made in half a day. 


® 


POR, KBARNAK AND THEBES 


It is 418 miles from Cairo to Luxor. On the trip either 
by railroad or steamer, the whole way passes through the 
wonderful Nile Valley with its strange contrast of verdure 
fields, date palms and the sterile background desert. , Every- 
where there are interesting stone cities, mud villages, cara- 
vans of camels, and characteristic native life. Luxor is a 
modern town, with a population of about 20,000, having 


450 EGYPT 


several good hotels, especially the Winter Palace Hotel, with 
its fine view and charming garden. 

The main feature of tourist interest is the Temple of 
Luxor, built by Amenophis III, but appropriated by 
Rameses II, who erased all previous names and records 
and substituted his own, adding a number of immense 
statues of himself. He has his name and his statues in a 
conspicuous way on sixty temples and sites, but he origi- 
nated very few. He seems to have been possessed with a 
fanatical sense of his own transcendent greatness. “The 
temple gives a marked evidence of the greatness of the 
Pharaohs, and has many interesting features, although it is 
not as large and imposing as the temple at Karnak. Parts 
of it, after Christianity was introduced, were used as a 
church. 

Karnak Temple. Karnak Temple can easily be reached 
by donkey or carriage, being about a mile to the north of 
Luxor. It had its origin in the eleventh dynasty, about 
2160 B.c., although most of the buildings now in evidence 
only go back to about 1500 B.c. ‘The building was pro- 
gressive, having engaged the attention of kings for nearly 
five hundred years. 

It is a combination of temples, including that of the 
moon-god Kohns (the son of Amon and Mut), the temple 
of Mut, his mother, the temple of Amenophis II, and espe- 
cially the mammoth temple of Amon which is considered 
the greatest of all the architectural triumphs of Egypt and 
of antiquity. 

The Amon Temple is a succession of structures beginning 
with the twelfth dynasty. At the entrance is the first pylon, 
370 feet wide, and 142 feet high, with walls 49 feet thick. 
The top of this pylon, which is quite accessible, is well worth 
climbing because of the magnificent view of the entire region. 
The view from the top at night, with the full moon shining 
over the scene, is one of the most memorable experiences of 
travel. Standing on the pylon, one can get a bird’s-eye view, 
not only of the majestic ruins of the temple which extend 


KARNAK 451 


for more than a quarter of a mile, but of stretches of the 
Nile river and of the monuments of ancient Thebes on the 
opposite side of the Nile, with the Avenue of Sphinxes, 
leading down to the water. Originally, this avenue con- 
tinued several miles on the other side of the river to the 
ancient city of Thebes, and in its glory must have been an 
imposing spectacle. 

After passing the entrance to the Amon temple, one comes 
to a series of courts and lesser temples, leading to the great 
Hypostyle Hall, really one of the wonders of the world. 
It has sixteen rows of great columns, 134 in number, some 
of which are 69 feet high and 33 feet in circumference. 
Everywhere on pillars and walls there are inscriptions and 
reliefs in a variety of blended colours, which must have 
originally made the Hall radiant with beauty. Lesser tem- 
ples and several obelisks are massed to the rear of the 
Hall. 


THEBES 


After crossing the Nile river from Luxor in boats, the 
visitor, on his way to the Tomb of the Kings, has occasion to 
pass a number of ruins which evidence the grandeur of the 
ancient city of Thebes. One of these is the terraced temple 
of Der-el-bahri, built by the peace-loving Queen Hat- 
sapsut (or Hatsepsu). It consists of a four-terraced struc- 
ture built against the side of the cliff, the terraces being 
connected by stairs. Some fine bas-reliefs, including one on 
the third terrace, describing the expedition to the Holy 
Land, add to the charm of the temple. ‘The whole structure 
makes an artistic picture, and suggests its beauty in the 
pristine days when the approaches were planted with fragrant 
trees from Somaliland. 

The Ramesseum was built by Rameses II and dedicated 
to Amon. ‘The enormous seated statue of Rameses II is 
a red granite monolith sixty feet high, although now pros- 
trate and broken. It weighed not less than 1,000 tons, and 
showed an engineering skill of a high order to have trans- 


452 EG Yr 


ported such a colossal image and raised it upon its pedestal. 
The mud brick barracks and temple granaries are still stand- 
ing behind the Ramesseum. 

The Colossi are monoliths about sixty feet high within 
a stone’s throw of each other, situated on a flat plain only 
a little more than a mile from the Nile, and hence during 
the yearly inundation, their bases stand in the water. “These 
attracted a great deal of attention during the time of the 
Roman Empire, and one of them was believed to be “vocal,” 
emitting a musical sound each morning at the rising of the 
sun. 

Tomb of Tut-ankh-amen. ‘Tut-ankh-amen, or Tut- 
ankhamen, ruled 3,300 years ago. He belongs to the close 
of the eighteenth dynasty, which was the Golden Age of 
Egypt, and was the heir to its accumulated riches, at a time 
when the world was paying tribute to Egypt. It was for 
this reason that his Tomb is especially prodigal in regal 
equipment and also because it has never been plundered. 
‘There are altogether sixty of these tombs of the Kings in 
“the Necropolis of ‘Thebes, but only sixteen are accessible. 

‘The Egyptians thought that a man needed all the various 
articles, such as are stored in the Tomb, in the hereafter 
life, and also that he needed a body which on that account 
was mummified to preserve it. 

Howard Carter is an Englishman, and not an American 
as is usually stated. He had planned for nearly thirty 
years to find this Tomb, as being the only one not already 
discovered. He had a description of it from an ancient 
papyrus record, which is in the Museum at Turin, Italy. 
With the co-operation of Lord Carnarvon, who became the 
financial backer of his plan, he had moved 70,000 tons of 
sand and stone without any result. On November 29, 
1922, he came upon the royal door of Tutankhamen, and 
found unbroken seals which gave the welcome assurance 
that it had never been disturbed. He then sent for Lord 
Carnarvon to see and share in the glory of the discovery. 
It was a real calamity that the death of Lord Carnarvon 


TUTANKHAMEN 453 


from a poisonous infection should have occurred soon after. 

The entrance chamber was filled with wonderful para- 
phernalia, such as would only be possible to the heir of 
Egypt’s wealth. It was not only large in quantity, but 
astonishingly rich in quality. “There were one hundred and 
fifty sizeable and important objects herein stored, such as 
chests, chairs and furniture, conspicuous among which is the 
royal chair in ebony, ivory and gold, set with precious stones, 
and a dismounted chaiot with a leopard skin thrown across 
the top. “There were also ten thousand lesser objects, such 
as models of royal barges, elaborate vases, embroideries, gold 
sandals, scarabs, trinkets, rings and other jewellery, and 
small pieces of furniture, many of them inlaid with lapis- 
lazuli, carnelian and other semi-precious stones, although 
the chamber is only 30 x 18 feet. One robe had 3,600 
gold sequins. ‘These contents are now in the Cairo Museum. 

The fabrics needed to be handled with caution, lest they 
crumble into dust. Furniture with rich inlays were ready 
to fall apart, and had to be carefully put together. 

The inner Tomb Room, guarded by the two statues of 
the King was equally rich in furniture and in every conceiv- 
able sort of article, piled to the very roof. Here also is 
what appears to be the gold sarcophagus, believed to contain 
the mummy of Tutankhamen, although not opened at the 
time of this writing (July 1, 1925). It is rather 
strange, that although Egypt was famous for her remark- 
able glass work at this period, apparently specimens of this 
kind are entirely absent. ‘The fact is significant that even 
ordinary cooking utensils are beautified and decorated with 
lotus flowers, birds and animals, indicating that the Egyptian 
art of this period made contributions to the whole range of 
life’s activities and needs. 

The Egyptian Government, according to the law of 
Egypt, is supposed to receive only half of the contents of the 
tomb. It, however, sealed up the tomb for a time in an 
unwarranted manner, -but recently Mr. Carter has made 


454 EGY Pa 


concessions and come to an agreement. Nearly all the con- 
tents are now in the Cairo Museum. 

Among the other tombs of great interest in the Valley 
of the Kings are the very elaborate chambers of Rameses III 
and Sethos I. 

The Nile. The Nile takes its rise in the mountains of 
equatorial Africa and is fed by the torrential rains and by 
the melting snows on the highest African peaks. It is one 
of the four longest rivers in the world, being 4,062 miles 
in length, and it gains such volume in its course, that it 
flows through the sands of the Libyan desert for one thousand 
miles before reaching the Mediterranean, without receiving 
any supply from a single tributary. Besides providing irri- 
gation to furnish food for more than ten million people, it 
pours 61,500 cubic feet of water into the Mediterranean 
every second. 

The Assuan Dam, six thousand feet long, the locks 
adding another six thousand feet, cost originally $25,000,000, 
but this cost is more than made up each year by the value 
of the products of the additional soil thus irrigated. As 
much as 54,000,000 tons of water can pass through in a 
single hour. The water is served gradually during the 
entire summer, not only irrigating large new sections, but 
also insuring an extra summer crop in large parts of Egypt. 


PRACTICAL SUGGES TIO 


Hotels. Shepheard’s, Continental-Savoy and Semiramis 
are of the highest standard. “The same is true of the Mena 
House, near the Pyramids, and the Heliopolis Hotel, the 
finest in the world. The National is also a comfortable 
hotel. 

Money. ‘The Egyptian pound (£E.), nominally worth 
$5, contains one hundred piastres, each piastre (worth five 
cents) containing ten milliemes, each worth half a cent. 
English and American paper money is also current, but 
silver money from foreign countries is usually not acceptable.. 

Passports and Visés. These must be shown on enter- 


fee PlCAL HINTS 455 


ing and leaving Egypt, and are of service in establishing 
identity. 

Railways. The English compartment sleepers are of 
high standard, running water and toilet facilities being 
usually connected with each compartment accommodating 
four people. The railway carries fifty-five pounds of per- 
sonal baggage free. 

Carriages. Carriages cost from ten to fifteen piastres 
an hour for two or three people. To the Pyramids and 
return, including several hours’ stay, the rate is from eighty 
to one hundred piastres. In going to the Pyramids autos 
are preferable, although somewhat more expensive. 

Water. ‘This is usually Nile water, unsafe unless filtered 
and boiled. ‘The water furnished at hotels is safe. 

Shopping. ‘The shops beyond the Ezbekiya Garden on 
the Muski and the Arab shops on adjacent streets have 
cheaper prices, but judicious bargaining is necessary. “The 
shops near the large hotels are more reliable and, although 
they claim to have fixed prices, discounts are obtainable. 
Most of the ‘antiques’ are spurious and the prices high. 
The small Arab dealer often asks many times the actual 
value. 

The Muski is the chief street of the native Cairo, although 
it has become somewhat modern and displays much Euro- 
pean goods. ‘The Khan-el-Khahli is the centre of the 
bazaar region made up of the narrower side streets open- 
ing out on the Muski. Here are silks, carpets and rugs, 
beads, jewellery, slippers, ladies’ leather handbags, gold and 
silver ornamented shawls (sold by weight), perfumes, gold 
and silver filigree, and especially lapis-lazuli, supposed to 
be a cure for melancholia. It is well to avoid new-looking 
Oriental articles which are usually made in Europe, and are 
of very poor quality. 

The bazaars of Cairo are inferior to those of Damascus 
or Constantinople, but give a garish display of goods, much 
of it made in little rooms in the rear of the shops. Scarabs 
should be submitted for inspection at the Cairo Museum, 


456 EGYPT 


where they also can be purchased to better advantage than 
in the shops. 

Churches. The English All Saints’ Church is located 
on the Sharia Bulak, St. Mary’s on the Sharia Kasr-el-Aini, 
the Church of Scotland (St. Andrew’s) on the Sharia 
Bulak; services usually at 10:30 A.M. At 6 P.M. an Eng- 
lish service is held at the American Mission immediately 
opposite Shepheard’s. 

Climate. From January to early May the weather is 
delightful, though sometimes quite hot between twelve and 
three, when it is desirable to keep out of the sun. ‘There 
are sudden changes of temperature at sundown and a light 
wrap is advisable. Dark glasses dim the glare of the desert 
sun. 


SUPPLEMENTARY 22 
AND’ FIGs 


Egypt, which had been under the tutelage of the British 
Empire, was officially declared a British Protectorate in 
December, 1914, which was terminated by the elevation of 
King Fuad I to the throne on March 16, 1922. He is a 
son of the former Khedive, Ismail Pasha, and was born 
March 26, 1868. He married the Princess Nazli in May, 
1919. The new Egyptian flag has three white crescents, 
each centred with a white star, the background being red. 

The Premier is Ziwar Pasha, and Zaghlul Pasha is the 
President of Parliament. Great Britain reserves the right 
of the control and defence of the Suez Canal, the right of 
way to the Sudan, the protection of the life and property 
of foreigners, and the rights of minorities. 

There are evidences of internal troubles that bode ill for 
the future of the new Empire. 

The Legislative Assembly consists of the ministers, sixty- 
six elected members, and seventeen members nominated by 


FPAGTIS AND FIGURES 457 


the Government. Egypt has five governorships and four- 
teen provinces, subdivided into districts. 

The total area, including the Libyan desert, is 383,000 
square miles, but the cultivated and settled region of the 
Nile has 12,226 square miles. “The total population (1924) 
is 13,885,000. In 1882, when England took possession, it 
was 6,831,000. In 1917, there were 11,658,000 Moslems, 
107,600 Roman Catholics and 47,500 Protestants. The 
Coptic Church has 855,000 adherents and is ruled by the 
Patriarch of Alexandria. 

In 1897, the Government, under the direction of Great 
Britain, established primary and secondary schools, besides 
professional and special schools. In 1922 there were 241,680 
scholars. The Mosque and University of El Azhar in 1914 
had 405 professors and 9,749 students. Several other 
Mosques have universities aggregating 5,405 students. 

The revenues and expenditures in 1923-24 were the same, 
being £34,905,000. 

The Egyptian Army has 17,000 men, but there is no 
navy. The imports (1922) were £48,716,418. The prin- 
cipal exports were cotton, cereals, vegetables, textiles and 
yarns. In 1921, 6,537 steamers entered Egyptian ports. 
The total number passing through the Suez Canal (1922) 
was 4,315, of which 2,384 were British, 458 were Dutch, 
223 were Japanese and 140 were American. 

Sir George Lloyd is the British High Commissioner for 
Egypt and the Sudan. 


RECENT BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Egypt, Old and New, P. F. Martin. ’23, Doran. 
Tutankhamen, E. A. Budge. ’23, Dodd. 

Egypt and the Old Testament, T. E. Peet. ’23, Small. 
Woman Tenderfoot in Egypt, G. Seaton. ’23, Dodd. 
Egypt, R. T. Kelly. ’23, Macmillan 

"Round About Egypt, A. B. Horsley. ’20, London. 


458 EGY PRR 


Egypt and the Old Testament, T. Peet. ’23, Small. 
Tutankhamen, A. E. Weigall. ’24, Doran. 

Nile and Jordan, G. A. F. Knight. ’21, Pilgrims. 
England in Egypt, A. M. Milner. ’20, Longmans. 

The Egyptian Problem, V. Chirol. ’20, Macmillan. 

By Nile and Tigris, E. A. Budge. ’20, Dutton. 

Modern Sons of the Pharaohs, 8S. H. Leeder, ’19, Doran. 
The Spell of Egypt, A. Bell, °16, Page. 


AROUND THE WORLD 


RECENT BIBLIOGERAY 


The Round the World Traveller, D. E. Lorenz, Ph.D. 
25, Revell. 

Asia at the Crossroads, E. A. Powell. ’22, Century. 

Pacific Triangle, S. Greenbie. ’21, Century. 

China, Korea and Japan, J. O. P. Bland. ‘21, Scribner. 

Glimpses of China, Japan and the East, T. Kawata. ’23, 
Stechert. 

Mainly East, E. B. Tweedie. ’23, Dutton. 

From Golden Gate to Golden Sun, H. Norden. ’23, Small. 

Where the Strange Trails Go Down, E. A. Powell. ’21, 
Scribner. 

Within the Gateways of the Far East, C. R. Erdman. ’23, 
Revell. 

Beachcomber in the Orient, H. L. Foster. ’23, Dodd. 

In the Eyes of the East, M. L. Greenbie. ’21, Dodd. 

East of Suez, W.S. Maugham. ’22, Doran. 

Sea Power in the Pacific, H. C. Bywater. ’21, Houghton. 

Strange Peoples and Customs, A. B. Evans. Pacific Pub- 
lishing Co. 

Roving East and Roving West, E. V. Lucas. ’21, Doran. 

East in the Light of the West, R. Steiner. Putnam. 

Cruises Along By-ways of the Pacific, W. H. Hobbs. Strat- 
ford. 


Pee 1 G Rod Po Y 459 


Happy Traveller, E. Tatchell. ’23, Holt. 

World Today, H. H. Johnston. ’25, Putnam. 

Everywhere, A. H.S. Landor. ’24, Stokes. 

The Challenge of Asia, Shirley Rice. ’25, Murray. 

Life of the Ancient East, J. Blackie. ’23, Macmillan. 

Buddhism and Buddhist in Southern Asia, K. J. Saunders. 
’23, Macmillan. 

Far East Unveiled, F. A. Coleman. ’19, Houghton. 

Twin Travelers in China and Japan, M. H. Wade. ’22, 

Stokes. 

Flashlights from the Seven Seas, W. L. Stidger. ’21, Doran. 

Four Pilgrims, W. Boulting, ’20, Dutton. 

Old World Through New Eyes, M.S. Ware. °17, Putnam. 

A Critic in the Orient, G. H. Fitch. 713, Elder. 

The Far East, A. J. Little. ’14, Oxford. 

Scented Isles and Coral Gardens, C. D. Mackellar. ’12, 
Dutton. 

The Color of the East, E. Washburn. ’14, Stokes, 


PAGES FOR PERSONAL JOTTINGS 


THE traveller will find the blank pages at the end of the 
book very convenient for adding personal experiences and 
incidents, notes of shipboard lectures, memoranda concern- 
ing prominent persons, desirable shops, hotels, etc., as well 
as additional information of a general character. Such notes 
will add greatly to the permanent value of the book to its 
owner. Having a guide-book and note-book under one cover 
will also serve as a great convenience to travellers. 

Those who may not plan such a trip around the world, 
but who are interested in the study of the countries herein 
described, will find these blank pages desirable for additional 
notes suggested by general reading, 


INDEX 


Aden, 435 Cairo, 441 
Agra, 375-393 Churches, 445, 446, 456 
Bazaars, 392 Hotels, 454 
Fort, 383 Museum, 443 
Hall of Private Audience, 391 Old Cairo, 445 
History, 375 People, 442 
Information, General, 392 Shopping, 455 
Jasmine Palace, 386 Supplementary Facts and Fig- 
Pearl Mosque, 384 ures, 456 
Sightseeing, 383, 384, 393 Calcutta, 339-347 
Taj Mahal, 375-383 Alipore, 346 
Alipore, 346 Black Hole, 339 
Amber, 401 Churches, 346 
: History, 339 
Batavia, 279 Jain Temple, 342 
Benares, 354-366 Sights, Important, 340 
Bathing Ghats, 356 Victoria Memorial, 341 


Burning Ghats, 358 
Maharaja’s Palace, 363 
Temples, 360 

Bombay, 402-414 


Canal Zone, 41 
Sightseeing, 44 
Canton, 236-246 


Christian Work, 2 
Churches, 412 : » 245 
Hotels, oe City of the Dead, 243 
Parsees, 403 Hotels, 244 
Shopping, 412 Money, 244 
Sightseeing, 409 Old Canton, 240 
Towers of Silence, 406 Pagodas, 237, 242 
Borobudur, 288 Pawnshops, 243 
Buitenzorg, 282 People, 241 
Batik Work, 285 Railroad Trip to, 238 
Botanical Garden, 283 River trip to, 237 


Hotels, 282 

Burma, 297-311 
Bibliography, 311 
Education, 300 
Missionary Work, 300 
People, 297 Cawnpore, 371 
Religion, 299 Sights, 372 
Supplementary Facts and Fig- Ceylon, 421-435 

ures, 310 Chagres River, 41 


461 


Sampan Life, 237 
Shameen, 239 

Shops and Shopping, 245 
Temples, 242, 243 


462 


China, 173+253 
Banking Consortium, 186 
Bibliography, 252 
Boxer Rebellion, 177 
Brigandage, 183 
Commercial Possibilities, 187 
Education, 192 
Foreign Intervention, 187 
Government Degeneracy, 184 
Great Wall, 221 
Homes, 189 
Inscrutable Chinese, 189 
Japanese Relation to, 178 
Language, 192 
Manchus, 173 
Notable Men, 182 
Opium Curse, 206 
Practical Hints, 195 
Religions, 198 
Resources, 188 
Shops and Shopping, 196 
Students’ Movement, 193 
Supplementary Facts and Fig- 
ures, 248 
Tuchuns, 174, 176 
Women, 190 
Yuan Shih-kai, 174 
Colombo, 423 
Colon, 41, 43, 53, 56, 57 
Cristobal, 41, 43 
Cuba, 13-35 
American Intervention, 14 
Bibliography, 35 
Houses, 18, 21 
Lottery, 16 
People, 19 
Spanish-American War, 14 
Supplementary Facts and Fig- 
ures, 32 


Darjeeling, Trip to, 348 
Places of Interest, 352 
Tiger Hill, 350 

De Lesseps, 36, 50, 436, 437 

Delhi, 393 
Bazaars, 397 
Churches, 397 
Hotels, 397 
Jami Mosque, 396 
Palace, 393 


INDEX 


Delhi (Continued) 
Peacock Throne, 394 
Tower of Victory, 398 


Egypt, 440-459 
Assuan Dam, 454 
Bibliography, 457-458 
Nile, 454 
Pyramids, 446 
Supplementary Facts and Fig- 
ures, 456 


Elephanta Island, 412 
Fatehpur Sikri, 374, 390 


Havana, 20 
Battleship Maine, 14, 21 
Churches, 24, 30 
Harbour Entrance, 20 
Hotels, 32 
Morro Castle, 20, 22, 28 
Shopping, 31 
Sightseeing, 21 
University, 26, 34 
Hawaii, 59-84 
American Administration, 63 
Bibliography, 84 
Defences, 64 
History, 59 
Japanese Problem, 65 
Kilauea Volcano, 70 
Leper Settlement, 72 
Missionary Work, 67 
People, 65 
Supplementary Facts and Fig- 
ures, 82 
Hilo, 70 
Hong-Kong, 230 
Churches, 235 
Hotels, 234 
Schools, 235 
Shopping, 236 
Sights, 233 
Honolulu, 73 
Churches, 79 
Education, 80 
Hospitable Welcome, 74 
Information, General, 81 
Sightseeing, 75, 78 


INDEX 463 


India, 312421 
Bibliography, 420 
Caste, 327, 334 
Constructive Influences, 329 
Gandhiism, 318-329 
Hints to Travellers, 316 
History, 312 
Mogul Empire, 372 
Need, The Great, 338 
People, 315 
Religions, 331 
Sepoy Mutiny, 366 
Supplementary Facts and Fig- 

ures, 417 
Inland Sea, 156 


Jaipur, 399 
Hotels, 401 
Sights, 400 

Japan, 85-164 
American Relations with, 93 
Bibliography, 163 
Characteristics, 107 
Chuzenji Lake, 130 
Customs, 107 
Earthquakes, 88 
Fujiyama, 132 
Government, 90 
Hakone, 131 
History, 85 
Imperialistic Plans, 9o0-r1or 
Internationalism, 92 
Labor Conditions, 111 
Miyanoshita, 130 
Religions, 102 
Supplementary Facts and Fig- 

ures, 160 

Java, 276-291 
Bibliography, 291 
Government, 279 
History, 276 
People, 278 
Supplementary Facts and Fig- 

ures, 289 


Kamakura, 116 
Daibutsu, 117 
Kandy, 426 
Temple of the Tooth, 428 
Karnak, 449, 450 
Kilauea Volcano, 70 


Kobe, 152 
Churches, 155 
Hotels, 155 
Shopping, 156 
Sights, 154 
Korea, 165-172 
Annexation, 167 
Bibliography, 172 
Characteristics, 169 
Dress, 168 
Japanese Rule, 165 
Missionary Work, 168 
Kyoto, 133-144 
Doshisha University, 141 
Information, General, 142 
Shopping, 142 
Sightseeing, 134 
Temples, 138 


Lucknow, 368 
Churches, 370 
Hotels, 370 
Sights, 369 

Luxor, 449 


Macao, 246 

Madras, 414 

Madura, 417 

Manila, 265 
Churches, 270 
Practical Hints, 270 
Schools, 270 
Sightseeing, 266 

Memphis, 448 

Miyajima, 157 


Nagasaki, 157 
Sights, 159 
Nara, 144 
Deer Park, 144 
Temples, 145 
Nikko, 124-130 
Nogoya, 132 


Osaka, 149 
Bronze Bell, 152 
Castle, 151 
Churches, 152 
Curio Shops, 152 


464 


Panama, 35-58 
Balboa, 35 
Bibliography, 58 
Canal Facts, 40 
Employés, Care of, 39 
Forts, 42 
Gaillard Cut, 41, 46, 49 
Gatun Dam, 41, 45 
Hints to Travellers, 54 
Information, General, 48 
Panama City, 51 
Sightseeing, 44 
Supplementary Facts and Fig- 
ures, 56 
Peking, 208-222 
Art Museum, 218 
Churches, 219 
Forbidden City, 210 
General Hints, 219 
Great Wall, 221 
History, 208 
Sightseeing, 214 
University, 220 
Peradeniya, 430 
Philippine Islands, 253-275 
Bibliography, 275 
Filipinisation, a 
254 
Filipino Characteristics, 264 
People, 261 
Resources, 259 
Supplementary Facts and Fig- 
ures, 271 
Withdrawal, the Question of, 


Sweeping, 


258 
Port Said, 438, 440 


Rangoon, 301 
Pagoda as Political Issue, 306 
Practical Hints, 308 
Shopping, 309 
Shwe Dagon Pagoda, 302 
Sightseeing, 301 


INDEX 


Red Sea, 436 
’Round the World Bibliography, 


458 


Sarnath, 365 
Seoul, 170 
Shanghai, 223 
Characteristics, 224 
Churches, 228 
Commerce, 224 
Hotels, 228 
Missions, 228 
Practical Hints, 228 
Shopping, 229 
Sights, Principal, 226 
Yangtze River, 223 
Shimonoseki, 159 
Sikandra, 389 
Akbar’s Tomb, 389 
Siliguri, 348 
Singapore, 291 
Bazaars, 297 
Bibliography, 297 
Places of Interest, 294 
Raffles, Sir Thomas S&., 292 
Supplementary Facts and Fig- 
ures, 295 
Sourabaya, 287 


Thebes, 449, 451 
Tut-ankh-amen Tomb, 452 
Tientsin, 222 
Tokyo, 118 
Churches, 123 
Earthquake, Effect of, 119 
Hotels, 123 
Sightseeing, 120 
Trichinopoli, 415 


Weltevreden, 280 


Yamada, 148 
Ise Temple, 149 


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